For centuries in China, men and women gathered to play a game called Cuju. Considered an ancient form of soccer, a pastime, but also a political tool, it played a prominent role in forging cultural and social bonds in the Chinese Empire.

A study recently presented by Enzo H. Smith at the annual Young Researchers Conference at the University of Portland analyzes this ancestral game, its origins, and its evolution into a symbol of unity in the Asian country for more than fifteen hundred years.

Interestingly, Cuju did not originate as entertainment, but as a kind of physical training. It emerged around the 3rd century BCE, during the period of constant warfare among the Warring States, to help soldiers develop agility, precision, and leg strength. The first mention was found in a military exercise manual from the Han dynasty, the Zhan Guo Ce (Strategies of the Warring States), written between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE.

As many readers might have guessed, Cuju rules only allowed players to strike the ball—made of leather stuffed with feathers and hair—with their feet, without using their hands. The objective was to get it into a small net placed about 10 meters high between two bamboo poles.

cuju ancient china soccer
Emperor Xuan-te watches the eunuchs playing cuju. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Initially confined to barracks and military quarters, it soon spread to civilian society. Thus, during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the game had already become part of daily life in the imperial court and among the elites, and it also began to be played in town squares and streets of cities and villages.

According to Smith, in a territory as vast as ancient China, which included peoples of different languages, religions, and customs, making everyone feel part of the same country was a complex task. That’s where Cuju played a crucial role.

The imperial government enthusiastically promoted its practice, fully understanding that it helped reinforce state cohesion. At court, emperors organized matches to show closeness to the people or to reward loyal officials. In the cities, sports events helped maintain harmony among residents from different regions.

Cuju also evolved as a form of art. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), it became a refined spectacle with elaborate rules and sophisticated techniques. Professional player clubs emerged, even with coaches and sponsors, especially in the city of Linzi, the capital of the ancient state of Qi. The best players achieved fame similar to that of actors or musicians.

During each match, everyone spoke the same language—the language of the ball—regardless of province, ethnicity, or accent. Courtesy and respect prevailed, with unsportsmanlike behavior and unfriendly conduct being penalized. Gradually, a sense of community emerged around the game.

cuju ancient china soccer
Women playing cuju in a work by Du Jin. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Matches were played in colorful costumes, with choreographed movements and music, and variations were added to make them more entertaining. Sometimes obstacles were introduced or the game was played in small spaces to showcase greater skill. Women also played, and of course, whoever scored the most goals won. Though not always, as some matches prioritized skill over scoring.

Essentially, Cuju matches embodied ideals of elegance, discipline, and beauty, in line with the Confucian ideal of the time. It was about practicing virtue through movement.

But Cuju’s fortune changed over time. During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the game reached its peak, and it was common to see matches in public squares, schools, and even temple courtyards. After the Mongol invasion and the rise of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the sport lost official favor.

Gradually, it came to be seen as an unproductive distraction, and some rulers banned it for being associated with excessive leisure. Although it survived in certain rural areas or as part of folklore, it never regained the central place it had held for centuries.

Today, FIFA considers it a precursor or ancestor of modern soccer, along with other games such as the Roman harpastum and the Greek episkyros. In Japan, around the 2nd century CE, a variant of Cuju also appeared called kemari, which had a more ceremonial character.

Cuju is the oldest form of a ball game played with the feet for which there is documented evidence.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on May 5, 2025: Cuju, el fútbol más antiguo del mundo se jugaba en China

SOURCES

Enzo H. Smith, Cuju: The Ancient Chinese Game That Held an Empire Together

Wikipedia, Cuju

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