The Papyrus Containing the Only Word Personally Written by Cleopatra Granted Tax Favors to an Influential Roman

In the display cases of the Egyptian Museum of Berlin lies a fragile piece of papyrus that speaks not of turbulent romances or epic battles, but of something more mundane and revealing: taxes, business, and possible under-the-table deals with powerful Romans.

The so-called “Papyrus of Cleopatra,” dated February 23, 33 BCE, is a royal decree that exempts a Roman citizen from paying fees for exporting Egyptian wheat and importing Greek wine.

It also grants him privileges for his ships and pack animals—an exceptional deal at a time when Egypt and Rome danced between alliance and rivalry.

Did Cleopatra Sign the Document?

The text ends with a Greek word, ”ginesthō” (“so be it”), written in a different handwriting than the rest. For some experts, such as historian Bernard Legras, that endorsement is the autograph of Cleopatra VII herself.

cleopatra papyrus autograph — Detail of the word written by Cleopatra. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Others believe it was a high-ranking official who penned it. Either way, the papyrus—catalogued as P.25239—is considered an “exceptional document” for understanding the relationship between Egypt and Rome before it became a Roman province.

Who was the beneficiary? The name is damaged and unreadable, but there are two theories: the first points to Publius Canidius Crassus, a military man and politician close to Mark Antony, Cleopatra’s lover. The other points to Quintus Cascellius, a financier linked to a family of bankers with interests in Egypt.

Whoever it was, the favoritism has led some researchers to question whether there was corruption: was this tax deal a payoff for political or military support at a critical moment? Let’s recall that, in 33 BCE, Mark Antony and Cleopatra were preparing to face Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) in a war that would end in their defeat and eventual death.

From Mummy to Historical Document

The story of how the papyrus reached us is just as fascinating. In the 1st century BCE, the papyrus was recycled to make the cartonnage of a low-cost mummy, found in Abusir el-Meleq, a necropolis south of Cairo. It was not unusual to reuse old administrative documents for coffins, but this case turned out to be a gem.

It was later discovered among the archives of the Egyptian Museum of Berlin and published in 2000 by researcher Peter van Minnen, who identified it as a prostagma (royal decree). Since then, it has sparked debate: was Cleopatra a shrewd strategist who bought loyalty, or merely a ruler who promoted trade?

Beyond speculation, the papyrus confirms that the Romans already had a foothold in Egypt decades before its formal conquest (30 BCE). It also reflects the cultural blend of the period: written in Greek (the administrative language of the Ptolemies), but addressed to a Roman.

The papyrus is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin, as part of the Egyptian Museum’s collection.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on April 25, 2025: El papiro que contiene la única palabra escrita personalmente por Cleopatra concedía favores fiscales a un influyente romano

SOURCES

van Minnen, P. (2000). An official act of Cleopatra (with a subscription in her own hand). Ancient Society, 30, 29–34. www.jstor.org/stable/44079804

Bernard Legras, Autour du papyrus dit de Cléopâtre : les prostagmata lagides et les interactions romano-égyptiennes. Studi ellenistici. Supplementi, no 1), 2013

Wikipedia, Papyrus de Cléopâtre