A recent study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science has revealed the materials and techniques used in the production of writing tablets from the Neo-Assyrian Empire, found in the ruins of Nimrud (present-day Iraq). These tablets, dating to the 7th century BCE, represent the first material evidence of cuneiform writing on wax.

The tablets were discovered during excavations carried out in the 1950s at the Northwest Palace of Nimrud, one of the capitals of the Assyrian Empire. According to researchers, they survived by sheer luck: they were thrown into a well during the sack of the city in 612 BCE, which allowed their preservation in a humid, oxygen-free environment.

Analyses revealed that the tablets, made of both wood and ivory, contained remnants of a yellowish paste that turned out to be a mixture of beeswax and orpiment, a yellow pigment composed of arsenic sulfide (As₂S₃).

Neo-assyrian wax tablets
Neo-Assyrian wax tablets in the British Museum. Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum

Recently, a team of scientists from the British Museum, led by Diego Tamburini, used advanced analytical techniques such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to study the tablet fragments. These methods allowed them to precisely identify the organic and inorganic components of the writing paste, as well as the type of wood used.

The results confirmed that the yellow paste was primarily composed of beeswax mixed with 25% orpiment, as previously suggested by analyses conducted in the 1950s. However, the new technologies revealed unprecedented details: the wax was exceptionally well preserved, with no traces of organic additives such as oils or resins, suggesting that the Assyrians preferred a simple yet effective formula.

Why Use Arsenic in Writing?

Orpiment not only provided an attractive golden color, but also improved the mechanical properties of the wax, making it less sticky and more suitable for engraving cuneiform characters.

Neo-assyrian wax tablets
Five fragments of a wooden writing board from Nimrud (9th-7th centuries BC), in the British Museum. Credit: The Trustees of the British Museum

The study also proposes the hypothesis that arsenic may have acted as a natural preservative. This element is known for its antimicrobial properties, and its presence in the paste may have protected it from deterioration caused by fungi and bacteria for over 2,600 years.

Researchers also detected traces of charred plant material on some tablets, indicating the occasional use of carbon-based black pigments. It is possible that the Assyrians also produced tablets with dark surfaces, a practice that would later become popular in Greek and Roman cultures.

Wood analysis confirmed that the tablets were made from walnut (Juglans regia), a tree native to the region spanning from Iraq to the Himalayas. This supports the idea that the Assyrians used local materials instead of importing them, despite their vast trade network. The ivory tablets, on the other hand, were larger and were likely reserved for special uses or for the elite.

The researchers emphasize that this work lays the groundwork for future comparative studies with tablets from other regions, such as Egypt or Anatolia, which could reveal unexpected cultural connections.

SOURCES

Diego Tamburini, Joanne Dyer, at al., Material characterisation of the Neo-Assyrian writing boards from Nimrud. Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 178, June 2025, 106218. doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2025.106218

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