A recent archaeological discovery in Egypt’s Eastern Desert has revealed the harsh reality faced by miners during the Ptolemaic period. During excavations at the Ghozza site, a team of French researchers uncovered iron shackles used to chain the workers of the gold mines, confirming the existence of forced labor in these operations during the 3rd century BCE.

Egypt has always been a land rich in mineral resources, and its gold has been coveted since ancient times. During the New Kingdom (1500-1000 BCE), mining in the Eastern Desert reached its first major peak, but it was during the Ptolemaic era (332-30 BCE) that gold exploitation reached its height. The Ptolemies, heirs to Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt, needed resources to finance their military campaigns, architectural projects, and maintain their power in the region.

Gold mines proliferated during this time, with around 40 active operations under Ptolemaic control. Among them was Samut North, a site excavated in 2014 that revealed an organized production system with workers confined to dormitories under strict supervision. However, the recent discovery at Ghozza offers a more complex perspective on the labor organization in these mines.

gold mines egypt shackles
Iron shackles on the floor of Room 44.15. Credit: B. Redon

Excavations at Ghozza, which began in 2020, have uncovered two phases of occupation over several years in the second half of the 3rd century BCE. Unlike Samut North, Ghozza appears to have been organized as a village with streets, residential blocks, administrative buildings, and even baths, suggesting a different social structure.

While Samut North used collective mills to crush quartz, Ghozza has revealed evidence of manual grinding with stones, which could indicate a more diversified production system.

One of the most interesting discoveries has been the large number of ostraca (pottery fragments used for writing), which have provided insight into the daily lives of the miners. Some inscriptions suggest that certain workers were paid, raising the question of the diversity of the labor force at this mine.

gold mines egypt shackles
A complete set of iron shackles from Room 44.15. Credit: M. Kačičnik / Institut français d’archéologie orientale

However, the discovery of shackles in January 2023 in a metal storage and production area within Ghozza provides tangible evidence that some miners worked while chained. Researchers found two sets of shackles: one with seven rings for feet and two articulated links, carefully arranged in a pit within a corridor, and another with four links and scattered ring fragments in another room.

These shackles, designed exclusively to restrain humans, were fastened around the ankles and could only be removed with external help. While they allowed the use of the hands, walking with them was difficult and exhausting, turning the workday into a constant torture.

The existence of these shackles matches the descriptions of Agatharchides, a 2nd-century BCE Greek historian, who recounted how miners in Egypt were prisoners of war and condemned criminals who worked relentlessly, day and night, with their feet chained. Although ancient texts had already mentioned these practices, archaeological evidence of shackles in mines is extremely rare, making this discovery highly significant for understanding slavery in Ptolemaic Egypt.

gold mines egypt shackles
Image of a shackled man on a kylix found in Naples, dated to 490–480 BC. Credit: National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden

The discovery at Ghozza has also revealed similarities between the mining technology used in Egypt and that of Greece. The shackles found at this mine are reminiscent of those discovered at Laurion, a silver mine in Greece, where slaves were employed under similar conditions. Additionally, the quartz crushing techniques at Samut North also have parallels with Laurion, suggesting that Greek and Macedonian engineers brought their technical knowledge to Egypt under the Ptolemaic rule.

The discovery of shackles at Ghozza confirms that at least part of the workforce in the Ptolemaic mines worked under coercion. However, the organization of the settlement suggests that not all miners were slaves or prisoners. The lack of clear confinement areas and the evidence of wages in some cases raise questions about the social composition of the mining population and the degree of mobility among its workers.

There is still much to be discovered at Ghozza. More than half of the site has been excavated, and research continues in search of more clues about the lives of these miners. However, this discovery already provides a revealing view of human exploitation in the gold mines of Ptolemaic Egypt, reminding us that the wealth of this civilization also came at a high human cost.

SOURCES

Redon B. Iron shackles from the Ptolemaic gold mines of Ghozza (Egypt, Eastern Desert). Antiquity. Published online 2025:1-7. doi:10.15184/aqy.2025.39

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