Since the dawn of civilizations—and perhaps even earlier—humanity has had no choice but to reach agreements with its neighbors in order to live in peace. In this sense, the longest-lasting treaty known in history was the one signed between the Muslim rulers of Egypt and the Christian kingdom of Makuria, which was located in what was once Nubia. The treaty was established in the 7th century and lasted until the mid-12th century—nearly seven hundred years. Historiographically, it is known as the Bakt (or Baqt), though it is uncertain whether the name derives from the ancient Egyptian word for barter or from the Latin pactum.

Makuria was one of three kingdoms that emerged after the fall of Kush at the hands of Aksum around 350 AD. Unlike the other two, Nobatia and Alodia, which occupied the eastern bank of the Upper Nile, Makuria was situated on the western bank, between the third and fourth cataracts, in the region known as Napata. There, the city of Old Dongola was founded as the capital of a hereditary monarchy with a matrilineal succession system. The king, who was also a priest, governed with the support of a political council of seven bishops. This government, like its administration, was heavily influenced by the West, particularly due to the efforts of Justinian in the 5th century to counteract Sasanian expansion.

Byzantine influence was also evident in religion, as the Makurians abandoned paganism to adopt Christianity. Initially, there was a conflict between the Chalcedonian creed supported by the emperor and the Miaphysite doctrine favored by his wife, Theodora. The arrival of missionaries advocating the latter view was decisive, leading to a convergence with Coptic Christianity. In contrast, the neighboring kingdom of Nobatia resisted this transition. As a result, King Mercurius of Makuria invaded and annexed it, a move that also served as a buffer against the spread of Islam, which had taken hold of Egypt.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
The Orthodox Caliphate at its greatest extent, during the time of Caliph Uthman. Credit: Wario2 / Wikimedia Commons

Indeed, in the year 642, the Orthodox Caliphate conquered the Nile region from the Byzantines, who had reclaimed the province from the Sasanians only a decade earlier, following the customary succession crisis that ensued after Emperor Heraclius’s death the previous year. The invasion was led by Amr ibn al-As with four thousand warriors—mostly Yemenis, along with others. Despite their small numbers, the conquest was not particularly difficult, as they applied the same tactic that would later facilitate the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula: offering the option of converting to Islam or paying the jizya (a tax for non-Muslims) as alternatives to war.

It appears that the Egyptian Copts played a role similar to that of the Jews in Hispania, making agreements and supporting the invaders due to the fact that their patriarch, Benjamin, had been deposed by Constantinople. Of course, battles still occurred, and some ended in deliberate massacres intended to instill fear and weaken resistance. However, the local administrative system placed the burden of defense on provincial governors, who had to raise their own armies. Once these forces were defeated, there was no one left to take over or reorganize new troops, leading to the fall of one city after another.

The capitulation of Alexandria marked the end of Byzantine Egypt just two years after the campaign began, making it the shortest conquest of the early Muslim era. The next target was the south, and in the summer of 642, Uqba ibn Nafi set out in that direction on the orders of his cousin Amr ibn al-As. However, this was not a full-scale invasion but rather a show of force to assert Egypt’s new ownership over the Christian Makurians. As a result, the conflict was limited to skirmishes and minor clashes, with the Nubians avoiding open battles.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
Maximum extension of the Kingdom of Makuria. Credit: LeGabrie / Wikimedia Commons

In fact, they defended their land fiercely, opting for guerrilla warfare in which they prevailed thanks to their powerful cavalry and formidable archers, who unleashed clouds of arrows aimed specifically at the face—hundreds of opponents were left blind in one eye. This forced Uqba ibn Nafi to order a retreat. There was peace for three years, but in 645, the Byzantines made a final, unsuccessful attempt to reconquer Egypt (apart from a last effort by Constans II in 654, which never even reached the shores). Alexandria lost its status as the capital to the newly established Fustat, leaving only the Nubian issue unresolved.

That issue was addressed in 651 with another expedition, this time led by Abdallah ibn Abi Sarh, who had started as Muhammad’s scribe before experiencing a crisis of faith and turning to military service. Adopted as a brother by Caliph Uthman, he was appointed governor of Egypt and took command of the army marching toward Makuria. However, relations between Christians and Muslims in the Upper Nile would not be settled by force but rather through diplomacy, following the second battle of Dongola, which once again put the invaders in a difficult position.

The battle took place in 652, a decade after the first engagement in which the Nubians had repelled their adversaries. Al-Maqrizi, a 14th-century Egyptian historian, suggests that the Makurians may have violated the truce and provoked hostilities, though the lack of documentary evidence makes the exact cause unclear. Others believe that Abdallah ibn Abi Sarh’s only goal was to bring the region under Egyptian control. In any case, the Christian kingdoms united with Makuria, and under the leadership of King Qalidurut, they prepared to resist.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
Ruins and tombs of the saints in Old Dongola. Credit: Hans Birger Nilsen / Wikimedia Commons

Five thousand Muslim soldiers equipped with heavy cavalry and at least one mangonel (also called a mangonel, a long-range catapult, which the Makurians had likely never seen before) laid siege to Dongola, which was protected by sturdy walls six meters high and four meters thick, along with several stone and mortar towers. All of this was defended by the relentless archers, who once again had the opportunity to showcase the fearsome accuracy they had demonstrated before.

The Islamic horsemen crashed against these defenses in their assaults and suffered heavy losses. The only significant damage to the city was caused by an incendiary projectile from the catapult, which set fire to the cathedral. Some later caliphal historians propagandistically spoke of victory because, in the end, a truce was negotiated, but others reflected the powerlessness of the troops of Abdallah ibn Abi Sarh. The truth is that these peace talks materialized in the signing of the Bakt, something that was unprecedented.

No copies of the agreement have been preserved, and only later accounts exist, which present discrepancies, perhaps due to errors or manipulation by scribes. It is also possible that it was never even put in writing, instead remaining a verbal pact. Even so, some agreed-upon conditions are known, such as Nubia being granted the status of a land free from conquest, a mutual commitment not to attack each other, and, in this preventive sense, a prohibition on settlers moving in either direction.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
Excavations of Dongola, with the cathedral in the foreground. Credit: M. Rekłajtis / PCMA UW

Additionally, free trade between both sides was guaranteed, with Egypt exchanging wheat, barley, wine, horses, and linen for 360 Nubian slaves per year, including the obligation to return fugitives. These groups had to be mixed, consisting of both men and women, but since the highest quality was required, children and the elderly were excluded. According to some sources, these shipments were expanded to provide forty extra slaves annually to Egyptian nobles and notables, increasing the total to four hundred. Since this trade continued uninterrupted for seven centuries, more than a quarter of a million people suffered this grim fate.

Ibn Abd al-Hakam, a 9th-century Egyptian historian and compiler whose work is essential for understanding the Muslim conquest of Egypt and who was one of the first to document the existence of the Bakt, provides two versions of the agreement. In the first, the Nubians would send slaves north without any economic compensation, which would reflect their subordination. In the second, he describes it as a reciprocal transaction, meaning both parties were equals, a version that aligns with Nubian sources.

If so, it is understandable why the Bakt raised concerns among Muslim theologians, as renouncing the conquest of new lands to expand Islam would go against the duty to spread the faith. However, it is likely that the treaty was not upheld in absolute terms and that sporadic skirmishes occurred—perhaps border conflicts—mild enough to avoid escalating into full-scale war. In fact, as mentioned, the Bakt lasted for seven centuries, albeit with ups and downs.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
The Throne Hall of Old Dongola. Credit: LeGabrie / Wikimedia Commons

There is little information about King Qalidurut, and he does not appear in historical records until the battle, when Islamic sources begin mentioning him, confirming his acceptance of the treaty, the reconstruction of the burned cathedral, and the erection of a memorial building in honor of the fallen. His later reign brought Makuria great prosperity, and he was succeeded by his son, Zacharias I. A crisis arose later when the Umayyads took power and besieged Fustat, only to be ousted in 750 and attempt to take refuge in Nubia.

The Bakt was suspended for a time in the second quarter of the 9th century, as Egypt was shaken by the Fourth Fitna, the civil war between the brothers Al-Amin and Al-Ma’mun over the Abbasid Caliphate’s succession after the death of their father, Harun al-Rashid, in 809. The conflict lasted until 827, but unrest persisted in the provinces, allowing King John to stop payments to Egypt. Once normalcy was restored with Al-Ma’mun’s victory, Egypt demanded the overdue tribute. The new Makurian monarch, Zacharias III, sent his son Georgios to Baghdad in 830 to negotiate and achieved significant success, avoiding payment and securing an agreement that it would be made only every three years.

During the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), Egypt’s relations with Nubia improved significantly, and trade exchanges intensified to the point that shipments of Nubian slaves became the main support of the caliphal army. This extraordinary affinity was due to the Fatimids being Shiites—a minority in the predominantly Sunni Muslim world, which often ostracized them. As a result, they sought allies wherever they could, and the Bakt facilitated this alliance with Makuria, despite it being Christian.

makuria dongola bakt treaty long lasting history
Painting of the cathedral of Faras representing King Moses George. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Things changed with the rise of the Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1250), whose first ruler was also the first sultan of Egypt: Saladin. He was a Sunni and a defender of Islamic orthodoxy, so he broke away from his predecessors’ policies and resumed an expansionist approach, conquering Palestine, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, and Yemen. The Makurians took advantage of the turmoil to launch a raid, thereby violating the Bakt. Two years later, Saladin’s brother, Turan Shah, retaliated by capturing Qasr Ibrim.

Turan sent an envoy to negotiate, but King Moses George responded by branding a cross onto his hand, leading to the war’s resumption. However, the situation was unfavorable for both sides, and Turan ultimately withdrew, though he had captured several cities. It is likely that the conflict with the Third Crusade kept Saladin too preoccupied to focus on the Nubians, but it was becoming increasingly evident that another major confrontation was inevitable. And it happened in 1265, when Sultan Baibars I of the Mamluks launched an expedition. Nubia was devastated, although it still retained enough power to strike back.

Once again, the winds of war were blowing; the Bakt was crumbling. The Mamluks proved to be too formidable a foe for Makurian King David, who was defeated, captured, and executed. Makuria entered a period of decline, with puppet rulers coming and going for fifteen years. Everything ended in 1290 with the secession of the small southern kingdom of Dotawo and the mountainous region of Jebel Adda. In theory, the Bakt was still in effect, but territorial fragmentation made it difficult to uphold its clauses, leading the Mamluks to place Abdallah Barshambu in charge of Makuria.

Despite being a Muslim, he did not force the population to convert. However, by then, the treaty had lost its purpose and was considered void. Even so, even after Islamic kingdoms were established from the 13th century onward—due to demographic collapse caused by a plague epidemic and civil wars that facilitated the settlement of Muslim tribes—Egyptians continued to demand the delivery of slaves. It was too profitable a business to abandon, with or without the Bakt.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on March 5, 2025: Bakt, el tratado más duradero de la historia, estuvo vigente durante siete siglos

SOURCES

S. Jakobielski, Christian Nubia at the height of its civilization

Giovanni R. Ruffini, Medieval Nubia. A social and economic history

Derek A. Welsby, The medieval kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, christians and muslims along the Middle Nile

Nehemia Levtzion y Randall L. Pouwels, eds., The history of Islam in Africa

Alexander Mikaberidze, Conflict and conquest in the Islamic world. A historical encyclopedia

Wikipedia, Bakt

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