In the 6th century BC, the Near East was dominated by three powerful kingdoms: the Median Empire of Astyages, the Neo-Babylonian Empire of Nebuchadnezzar II, and the Lydian Kingdom of Croesus. These three great kings were related by marriage: Astyages had married Arienis, sister of Croesus, while Nebuchadnezzar II had married Amytis, daughter of Astyages, making them brothers-in-law.
Their alliance made them seem unstoppable against any threat. However, their power would soon be eclipsed by the rise of Cyrus the Great, founder of the mighty Achaemenid Persian Empire.
Astyages was the last king of the Medes. His domain extended over most of what is now Iran, Iraq, Armenia, parts of Turkey, and Syria. The Median Empire prospered under his rule, and the capital, Ecbatana, became a center of trade and culture.
According to legend, Astyages was prone to having disturbing dreams and assigned magi to interpret them. When he had a dream indicating that his grandson Cyrus would overthrow him, he ordered his general Harpagus to kill the child. But Harpagus secretly handed him over to a shepherd named Mitradates, who raised him as his own son.
Whether true or not, in 550 BC, Cyrus led the revolt of the Persian tribes against Astyages. After several battles, he decisively defeated the Median armies at the Battle of Pasargadae, and Astyages was captured, bringing the Median Empire to an end.
Thus, Astyages, having reigned for thirty-five years, was deposed from the throne; because of his harshness and cruelty, the Medes fell under Persian rule, after having held the empire of Upper Asia beyond the Halys River for one hundred and twenty-eight years, except for the period when the Scythians ruled. So, during the reign of Astyages, the Persians, led by Cyrus, threw off the yoke of the Medes and began their rule over Asia. Cyrus kept Astyages near him for the rest of his life without taking any further revenge on him.
Herodotus, Histories I.130
Three years later, in 547 BC, Cyrus besieged the Lydian capital of Sardis, bringing an end to Croesus’s reign and Lydia’s status as a regional power. The siege, which lasted 14 days, marked a crucial moment in the history of the Near East.
Croesus, the fabulously wealthy king of Lydia, had provoked the conflict with Persia the previous year by invading Cyrus’s territory. Encouraged by vague prophecies and a history of military success, he sought to avenge the fall of his brother-in-law Astyages, but he miscalculated Cyrus’s growing strength.
The two armies first clashed at Pteria, in Cappadocia. The bloody battle was inconclusive, leading Croesus to disband his army for the winter and return to his city. Cyrus responded by pursuing him to Sardis.
King Croesus was caught off guard, but he still trusted his chances. Sardis was heavily fortified and well-defended, and he expected reinforcements from allies like Egypt, Babylon, and Sparta.
After 14 days, Cyrus managed to take Sardis, capturing the Lydian king. Ancient sources state that he initially ordered Croesus to be burned alive but later spared his life and kept him as an advisor. Thus, the Lydian kingdom became part of the Persian Empire.
Once Croesus was freed from captivity, Cyrus had him sit beside him and showed his esteem for him, as both he and his court regarded him with amazement. Croesus remained silent, lost in thought, until, turning his eyes toward the Lydian city and seeing the Persians looting it, he said:“Sire, may I speak my mind freely, or would you rather I remain silent for now?” Cyrus encouraged him to speak freely, and Croesus then asked: “What is that great crowd of people so diligently engaged in?” “They are looting your city and dividing your riches,” replied Cyrus. “Ah no,” Croesus responded, “neither the city nor the treasures they plunder belong to me anymore! They are yours now, and it is you who is truly being robbed by these plunderers.”
Herodotus, Histories I.88
Nebuchadnezzar II was the greatest king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, having rebuilt Babylon into a magnificent capital. He conquered many nations, including the Kingdom of Judah, and forcibly relocated Jewish captives to Babylon. He is credited with constructing the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. His empire controlled much of the Near East up to Egypt.
In October 539 BC, Cyrus invaded Babylonian lands. The elderly Nebuchadnezzar had died in 562 BC and had been succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk, his son-in-law Nebuzaradan, and the latter’s son Labashi-Marduk, who was overthrown by Nabonidus in 556 BC.
Nabonidus proved to be an incompetent ruler, who was not even in the city when the Persian attack occurred. The Babylonian army was defeated at the Battle of Opis in September 539 BC, and Cyrus’s troops entered Babylon without resistance on October 12 of that year.
When Cyrus fought at Opis, on the (bank of the) Tigris, against the army of Akkad, the people of Akkad withdrew. He took the spoils (and) massacred the people. On the fourteenth day, he captured Sippar without a battle. Nabonidus fled. On the sixteenth day, Ugbaru, governor of Gutium, and Cyrus’s army entered Babylon without a battle. On the third day of the month of Arahsamna, Cyrus entered Babylon.
Nabonidus Chronicle
The Persian king allowed the captive Jews to return to their homeland, earning their gratitude and support. With the fall of Babylon, Cyrus took control of all of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine.
The conquests of Astyages, Nebuchadnezzar, and Croesus had made them seem invincible. In just over ten years, Cyrus defeated them all to forge the greatest empire the world had ever seen.
Against the advice of Croesus, Cyrus later invaded the lands of the Massagetae beyond the Jaxartes River. He died in battle around 530 BC, fighting against Queen Tomyris, as Herodotus recounts. But by then, he had already laid the foundations for 200 years of Persian dominance.
This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on September 6, 2023: Tres cuñados dominaban Oriente Próximo en el siglo VI a.C., hasta que llegó Ciro el Grande
SOURCES
Heródoto, Historia
Livius, Nabonidus Chronicle
Encyclopaedia Iranica, Astyages
Paul-Alain Beaulieu, A History of Babylon, 2200 BC – AD 75
Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire
Wikipedia, Asedio de Sardes
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