The period between AD 180 and 550 was an era of great transformations in Scandinavia, where ancient tribal societies faced significant challenges and the first forms of organized kingdoms began to take shape. A new book published by historian Dagfinn Skre, based on six years of research across various disciplines such as archaeology, numismatics, runology, and natural sciences, explores this crucial stage in Scandinavian history.

The expansion of the Roman Empire and its continuous military conflicts led to the incorporation of foreign warriors into its ranks. During the war against the Marcomanni on the Danube, around AD 180, Emperor Marcus Aurelius found himself in need of recruiting mercenaries, organizing them into non-citizen auxiliary units (auxilia). Due to the devastation caused by the plague and casualties from the campaigns against the Persians, a considerable number of these soldiers came from Germanic and Scandinavian tribes.

At the end of the war, many of these mercenaries were discharged and returned to northern Europe, settling in new fertile lands that extended as far north as Trøndelag in Norway and Ångermanland in Sweden. These veterans, highly organized and experienced in the Roman military hierarchy, proved to be a force difficult for the Scandinavian tribes to resist.

Roman empire viking era scandinavian kingdoms origin
In front of the main building at Hove (right), at least 800 cubic meters of soil were excavated to create a sunken courtyard, intended to elevate and impressively showcase the surrounding structures. This enormous undertaking likely drew inspiration from a Roman forum. Credit: Arkikon

Following the model of Roman military camps, these groups of warriors were structured into bands led by a lord with his retinue of loyal followers. Inspired by their service in the imperial army, they adopted elements of Roman architecture and social life. A clear example is the residential complex at Hove, where an excavated sunken courtyard, similar to Roman forums, was designed to emphasize the grandeur of the main building.

Likewise, strategic centers such as Gudme on the island of Funen, Uppåkra in Scania, and Sorte Muld on Bornholm emerged. In these locations, groups of approximately 50 warriors formed self-sufficient communities in which agriculture was organized through slave labor, following the model of Roman villas.

The arrival of these warrior groups created tensions with the local tribes. In less fertile regions, the presence of these new lords was limited, while in areas with richer soils, they faced resistance from some indigenous communities. However, violence was not the only tool used to consolidate their dominance. Over time, agreements were established in assemblies (thing), where land rights were negotiated and alliances were forged between the former inhabitants and the newcomers.

Roman empire viking era scandinavian kingdoms origin
Gold bracteates like this one were given by the earliest kings of the Danes to their sworn and trusted men. Credit: Bloodofox / Wikimedia Commons

Roman influence was not limited to politics and social organization. It also shaped the material culture of these early Scandinavian kingdoms. Evidence of this can be seen in the gold bracteates, medallions inspired by Roman imperial decorations, awarded by the first Scandinavian monarchs to their loyal followers. These objects, featuring runic inscriptions and symbolic motifs, served as a way to reaffirm the king’s authority and strengthen alliances between different clans.

The decline of the Roman Empire in the fifth century marked a turning point. The trade and political networks that connected Scandinavia with Rome began to disintegrate, forcing Scandinavian leaders to seek new forms of legitimacy. In this context, the first state structures emerged, with monarchs who adopted government models inspired by the imperial Roman organization.

The Kingdom of the Danes, considered the first Scandinavian kingdom, emerged around AD 450. Its centralized monarchy was based on principles inherited from the empire, with a sovereign who ruled over a defined territory and established his lineage as the sole legitimate source of power. A recent study based on DNA analysis suggests that this kingdom consolidated following a military invasion that resulted in the redistribution of land among soldiers and their families, displacing part of the previous population.

Thus, the period between AD 180 and 550 was an era of conflicts and changes that laid the foundations of the medieval Scandinavian kingdoms. Roman influence not only transformed the way these peoples organized themselves politically and militarily but also left an indelible mark on their culture and worldview. As the region evolved, the models inherited from Rome served as a reference for the construction of a unique identity, marking the beginning of a new era in the history of northern Europe.

SOURCES

Museum of Cultural History (University of Oslo)

Dagfinn Skre, The Northern Routes to Kingship

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