Trade has been, since time immemorial, one of the main driving forces behind contact between civilizations. In this context, the Silk Road played a crucial role in connecting the Mediterranean world with the Far East. Among the many figures who contributed to this exchange, one of the earliest was Maes Titianus. This Macedonian merchant, of Roman and Syrian descent, organized an expedition deep into Asia, taking advantage of a pause in the wars between the Romans and the Parthians.

Maes Titianus came from a family of merchants who had obtained Roman citizenship, possibly thanks to the influence of Marcus Titius, a Roman governor of Syria who maintained diplomatic ties with the Parthian nobility. His name, which combines Macedonian and Latin elements, suggests a diverse cultural heritage with roots in Anatolia and Pontus. A Greek speaker, he was immersed in the commercial world of the eastern Mediterranean and, like many of his contemporaries, was aware of the value of the trade routes linking Rome to the wealthy markets of Asia.

Knowledge of the existence of a great civilization in the Far East was fragmented in the West. News about China arrived through Parthian and Kushan intermediaries, who controlled the silk trade and inflated the prices of Chinese goods. Aware of the possibility of reducing these costs and establishing a more direct connection with the East, Maes Titianus decided to organize his own expedition to personally verify the trade routes and conditions.

Maes titianus china roman expedition
The Silk Road in the 1st century AD. Credit: Kaidor / Wikimedia Commons

At the end of the 1st century or the beginning of the 2nd century AD, Maes Titianus sent a caravan from Syria with the goal of reaching the eastern regions of Asia. During this period, the Han dynasty had reestablished its authority in the Tarim kingdoms thanks to the campaigns of General Ban Chao, which contributed to the security of trade routes. Taking advantage of this relative stability, Maes’ expedition crossed Parthian territory and advanced along the caravan routes that traversed Iran, Afghanistan, and the northern Kushan Empire.

In the 2nd century AD, Claudius Ptolemy wrote that the geographer Marinus of Tyre reported that Maes had reached the Stone Tower, a geographical landmark considered the midpoint of the Silk Road, located in the mountainous corridor between Samarkand and the Tarim Basin, possibly in the Pamir Mountains near the border with China.

Marinus tells us that a certain Macedonian named Maen, who was also called Titian, son of a merchant and a trader himself, recorded the length of his journey to the Stone Tower, though he did not reach Sera in person but instead sent another there.

Ptolemy, Geography I.11

There, Maes’ trade agents were intercepted by Chinese authorities and escorted to Luoyang, the capital of the Han dynasty. From Ptolemy’s account, it appears that Maes did not accompany them but instead waited at the Stone Tower. During their stay at the court, they were received by Emperor He and presented tribute in the form of Syrian silks and gold coins bearing the image of Emperor Trajan. However, by not identifying themselves as Roman citizens but rather as Macedonians, the Chinese did not associate them with the empire known in their records as “Da Qin”.

Maes titianus china roman expedition
Ruins of Tashkurgan Castle, one of the sites proposed by researchers for the location of the Stone Tower, in 1912. Credit: Internet Archive Book Images / Wikimedia Commons

The account of the expedition spread among merchants in Syria and Egypt, increasing interest in Chinese goods, particularly silk. However, control of the routes by the Parthians and Kushans made it difficult to establish a direct and sustained trade between Rome and China.

Despite its significance, Maes Titianus’ expedition presents several challenges for historians. The only references to him come from secondary sources. Ptolemy, for example, misinterpreted the duration and distances of the journey, leading to cartographic errors in his work. It is estimated that the expedition may have lasted between seven months and two years, depending on the exact route taken and the duration of stays at each destination.

Another debated issue is the exact purpose of the journey. Some scholars, such as Max Cary, suggest that Maes sought to eliminate middlemen in the silk trade, securing more direct access to Chinese producers. Others believe the expedition was more exploratory than commercial, as there are no records of further Roman-led expeditions following his.

Maes titianus china roman expedition
Commemorative relief of Ban Chao in Kasgar. Credit: John Hill / Wikimedia Commons

Upon his return, Maes wrote a complete account of the journey undertaken by his merchants, but only a few details mentioned by Ptolemy have survived.

Interestingly, in 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao sent an embassy to the Roman Empire. According to the Hou Hanshu (Book of the Later Han), compiled by historian Fan Ye in the 5th century AD:

In the ninth year of Yongyuan (97 AD), Ban Chao sent his assistant Gan Ying to the coast at the edge of the Western Sea, but he turned back. No previous generations had ever reached any of these places.

Gan Ying never reached Rome; he stopped upon reaching the Persian Gulf at the border of the Parthian Empire, discouraged by Parthian sailors who told him the journey was dangerous and could take two years. Could this embassy have been a response to the contact established by Maes Titianus’ expedition? The dates align, but the sources remain silent on the matter.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on February 18, 2025: Maes Titianus, el comerciante que organizó la primera expedición romana a China

SOURCES

Riaz Dean, The Stone Tower: Ptolemy, the Silk Road, and a 2,000-year-old Riddle

Igor’ Vasil’evich P’iankov, Maes Titianus, Ptolemy and the “Stone Tower” on the Great Silk Road

J. L. Berggren, Alexander Jones, Ptolemy’s Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters

Cary, M. (1956). Maës, Qui et Titianus. The Classical Quarterly, 6(3/4), 130–134. jstor.org/stable/636905

Wikipedia, Maes Titianus

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