To relieve my poverty, / my heart sometimes tells me: / “Man, do not worry so much / and do not endure such pain; / if you do not have as much as Jacques Coeur, / it is better to live under a great desk / poor, than to have been a lord / and rot in a rich grave.”

François Villon, Epitaph

This poem, written in the mid-15th century, explicitly references a French merchant who amassed a fabulous fortune by opening trade routes between France and the Mediterranean Levant, which allowed him to become an administrator for King Charles VII and gain nobility status. Unfortunately, this also earned him the envy and greed of others, ultimately leading to his downfall and forcing him to flee from the very country he had helped elevate. As the verses mention, we are speaking of Jacques Coeur.

He was born in Bourges, a city in the province of Berry (in the Loire Valley), at an undetermined date estimated to be around 1395. He was the son of Pierre Coeur, a master furrier who became a wealthy merchant, and Marie Lambert, the widow of a butcher named Jean Bacquelier. He also had a younger brother, Nicolas, born around 1403, and several sisters about whom little information is known. There is scarcely any data about Jacques’ childhood, except for a contemporary reference to his lack of interest in studies, which led his father to train him in the family business. In this field, however, he demonstrated keen insight and liveliness that compensated for his lack of formal education.

He was still a teenager when France was shaken by the catastrophic defeat at Agincourt, which led to the death of the nation’s finest nobility in battle and the loss of Aquitaine to England. Three years later, the Dauphin Charles was forced to flee Paris, pursued by Jean sans Peur (John the Fearless, son of Duke Philip the Bold and heir to the Duchy of Burgundy), who was allied with England’s King Henry V. Charles had to take refuge in Berry, earning the mocking nickname le petit roi de Bourges (“the little king of Bourges”).

Jacques Coeur
Ancient medieval mansion in Bourges that was once considered the birthplace of Jacques Coeur. Credit: Thérèse Gaigé / Wikimedia Commons

Once crowned as Charles VII, his presence in Berry went beyond that humiliating condition, as the establishment of the royal court there stimulated the local economy in general and that of the Coeur family in particular. Nicolas was appointed Bishop of Luçon, another sister married the king’s secretary, and a niece, Perrette, wed Jean de Village. The latter was granted the position of galley patron, meaning he commanded the merchant fleet, a role he shared with his friend Jacques.

By that time, Jacques had already settled into his life. Since 1418, he had been married to Macée de Léodepart, the daughter of the provost of Bourges and valet (chamber assistant) to the Duke of Berry, and Jeanne Roussart, whose father was a master at the local mint. With such well-placed relatives, it is no surprise that Jacques also obtained a prestigious position, managing one of the twelve exchange houses in the city. His character had matured, transforming from an indolent young man into a responsible and hardworking adult.

In 1427, he partnered with money changer Pierre Godart to mint currency. Two years later, in the course of this activity, he was accused of fraud and sentenced by the monarch to pay a fine of a thousand crowns—a very lenient punishment for a crime that would normally have condemned him to the galleys. However, the political context of the time made it unwise to dispose of those responsible for Bourges’ economic progress: in the war against Burgundy, Joan of Arc had just broken the siege of Orléans, opening the way for the coronation of Charles VII as King of France.

Jacques Coeur
France in 1429. Credit: Democ-soc / Wikimedia Commons

Barthomié, Pierre Godart’s brother, joined the partnership with Jacques, and together the three of them devised a bold and risky plan: opening trade routes with the Levant, competing with the Italians (Venetians, Genoese, and Pisans). To outdo them, they opted for cash payments instead of the traditional bartering system. They imported wool, silk, brocades, carpets, leather, furs, precious stones, and walnuts, while exporting wine, textiles, and minerals like iron and copper. To Egypt and Syria, they primarily sent silver and lead from the mines of the Rhône. This last trade, along with their spectacular success, helped sustain a legend inherited from Jacques’ father.

The legend claimed that Pierre Coeur was a modest merchant who could not even afford to rent a shop, but he met the famous alchemist Ramon Llull, who revealed to him the secret of the philosopher’s stone to create gold. Pierre then passed this secret on to his son. The truth, however, was that Jacques could take advantage of the fleet of twelve merchant galleys commanded by Jean de Village, which gave him extraordinary commercial power, along with a network of three hundred trade agents spread across the eastern Mediterranean who often secured monopolies over ports for French interests—sometimes through bribes, if necessary.

Additionally, this dynamic enterprise supplemented and increased its profits through illicit trade, as exporting certain precious metals like gold and silver—highly sought after in the Levant—was prohibited in France. But Jacques was clever enough to distribute his wealth across multiple bases. While his main hub was in Montpellier (revitalizing the old port of Lattes and filling the city with luxurious buildings), he had branches in Aigues-Mortes (where he set up a shipyard and a timber warehouse), Marseille (which had been a powerful port since antiquity), and Pézenas (where he built a factory).

Jacques Coeur
One of Coeur’s galleys in a relief of his Bourges palace. Credit: Remi Mathis / Wikimedia Commons

It was common for Jacques himself to take the lead on voyages, which facilitated transactions and on-the-ground decision-making. Little by little, his reputation grew, and he expanded his activities by granting loans to important entities, such as the Knights of Rhodes (formerly known as the Hospitallers, who changed their name upon settling on the Greek island of the same name and later became the Order of Malta), the Italian republics, and even the French crown.

In 1535, the crown entrusted him with the Bougers mint, and the following year, the Paris mint, where he minted gold coins that soon surpassed English ones in value. This prompted Charles VII to appoint him in 1439 as head of the royal treasury, a position in which he expanded its functions to secure more resources for the war against England. To achieve this, he created two direct taxes: the taille (on individuals) and the fouage (on households), while also reinforcing certain indirect taxes, such as the gabelle (salt tax).

His successful management earned him, in 1441, a grant of nobility from the crown, along with a coat of arms (azure background with three gules hearts and a golden band featuring three scallop shells, in reference to Saint James) and a motto (A vaillans cuers riens impossible, meaning “For valiant hearts, nothing is impossible”), officially making him part of the Royal Council. Interestingly, most royal councilors were of common origin, like him.

Jacques Coeur
His coat of arms and motto adorned his palace in Bourges. Credit: Fab5669 / Wikimedia Commons

Alternating between public and private work, Coeur continued amassing wealth, which had already become a true fortune, contributing to the prosperity of the state itself, whose economy was stable and growing. Because of this, Charles VII entrusted him with inaugurating the annual Estates General of Languedoc, which frequently voted in his favor, and also assigned him several diplomatic missions (in Genoa and Rome). In the latter, after mediating to end the schism of Antipope Felix V, he gained the favor of Pope Nicholas V, who granted him a license to trade with non-Christians.

In 1447, he began minting a high-quality silver coin known as the gros of Jacques Cœur, thanks to the acquisition of the silver mines of Brussieu, which he added to his already existing iron, lead, and copper mines. He managed to export this silver despite prohibitions by transporting it in ingot form rather than as coinage. His close relationship with the king also played a role; in 1449, Charles VII even authorized him to accompany him, dressed identically, during his triumphant entry into the reclaimed city of Rouen.

In fact, Coeur had even convinced the monarch to undertake the conquest of Normandy, which, along with part of Aquitaine, remained under English control. To support the campaign, he personally advanced two hundred thousand crowns. Thus, the war resumed in the summer of that year, and the following year he was appointed as the delegate to negotiate the surrender of Cherbourg, which effectively ended the conflict. This marked the peak of his influence, with executive power, ownership of about twenty lordships, numerous urban properties in various cities, castles, and palaces.

Jacques Coeur
Jacques Coeur’s palace in Bourges. Credit: Parsifall / Wikimedia Commons

However, as the saying goes, the higher one climbs, the greater the fall. A dark incident at court completely changed his life. Critics had already begun voicing concerns about the commercial monopoly he was forming and the successive loans he granted to the crown, making it increasingly dependent on him. The king’s favorite, in particular, had a passion for buying jewelry (including the first known cut diamond), often relying on Coeur for financial assistance, as they shared a close friendship.

Her name was Agnès Sorel, and she was an aristocrat from the Picardy region who had received a refined education. As was customary at the time, she completed her upbringing by being sent to another country at the age of fifteen—specifically to the Kingdom of Naples, where she served as a lady-in-waiting to Isabella of Lorraine, the consort of King René I. When she first met Charles VII, she captivated him, and he brought her to France to serve his wife, Marie of Anjou, though she soon became his mistress.

Despite the extravagant lifestyle that Agnès led—she wore eccentric headdresses, used trains several meters long, and popularized the off-the-shoulder neckline—the monarch developed a special empathy with her, and they had three daughters. This was not well received by the dauphin, the future Louis XI, who went so far as to threaten her with a sword, earning himself expulsion from the court. Her taste for luxury, questionable morality, influence over the king, and the debts she accrued with Coeur fueled a highly critical public opinion.

Jacques Coeur
Macée de Léodepart, wife of Jacques Coeur, wearing a headdress in the extravagant style introduced by Agnès Sorel. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

In February 1450, at the age of twenty-eight, she died suddenly. Initially, dysentery was cited as the cause, but the hypothesis of poisoning later gained traction. Analyses conducted on her remains in 2004 revealed that she suffered from ascariasis (a parasitic worm infection) and is believed to have used mercury (a common ingredient in cosmetics) as treatment, with the remedy proving worse than the disease. Dauphin Louis was a suspect, but since he was far away, he was exonerated, and suspicion fell upon Jacques Coeur after some ladies indebted to him took the opportunity to accuse him, arguing that he was the executor of the deceased’s estate.

No longer under Agnès’ protection, Coeur found himself viewed differently by Charles VII, who allowed him to be prosecuted for other crimes that began to surface: first, embezzlement, then, in 1451, he had to appear before the Grand Council, which ordered his imprisonment for lèse-majesté. He was also accused of forging the royal seal, smuggling precious metals out of the country, minting lightweight currency, returning a fugitive Christian slave to Alexandria, kidnapping rowers for his galleys, and selling weapons to the Saracens.

Some of these accusations may have had some basis, but others were clearly persecutory. However, despite responding to all charges in detail, the fact that the case relied mainly on testimony against him—150 witnesses in total—proved too much to overcome. Subjected to the torture of the boot, during which he received word of the death of his wife, Macée de Léodepart, he endured twenty-two months of confinement in five different prisons, undergoing public acts of penance. Finally, in May 1453, he was sentenced to death, though he was deemed innocent of Agnès’ death.

Jacques Coeur
An elderly Jacques Coeur portrayed by an artist of the school of Jean Fouquet. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

His death sentence was commuted to exile, though it included public humiliation: he was forced to ascend the scaffold holding a lit candle like a penitent. Furthermore, before leaving, he had to make several payments, for which his assets were seized: he was fined 300,000 crowns and ordered to reimburse another 100,000 to the Royal Treasury (which the king used to finance another war against England in Guyenne). Ironically, many of Coeur’s creditors, instead of settling their debts, kept his money and property—lands, houses, ships…

Charles VII, known for his fickle nature, showed him no gratitude and merely allowed provisions for the maintenance of his children. Coeur remained imprisoned until October 1454, when he managed to escape from the castle of Poitiers and, with the help of his sons and a nephew, traveled across Provence and reached Rome, where he was welcomed by his old friend, Pope Nicholas V. There, he began to reclaim what remained of his fortune: many of his earnings came from outside France, and he still owned numerous properties in Italy and the Levant, in addition to retaining his galleys, which had been at sea when he was arrested.

Speaking of galleys, the pope was preparing a naval expedition to aid Rhodes, under siege by the Ottomans. Though Nicholas V died before its completion, his successor, Callixtus III, continued the preparations and entrusted command of the fleet to Coeur, who had contributed financially to the effort. Having been granted the title of Captain General of the Church, he set sail in 1456, but during a stopover on the island of Chios, he died that November—some say of dysentery, others of a cannonball wound. A legend claims that he did not die at all but fell in love with a local woman, Lady Theodora, and settled in Cyprus, where he had two daughters and regained his fortune.

Legends aside, history records that he was buried in a church in Chios, later destroyed by the Ottomans. Charles VII later reversed his stance and decided to honor Coeur’s memory by allowing his children to reclaim what remained of their father’s wealth. However, he faced opposition from the influential Antoine de Chabannes, the main beneficiary of the confiscations. After years of legal battles, a resolution was finally reached when Chabannes arranged a marriage between his eldest son and the widow of one of Coeur’s children, bringing the dispute to an end.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on September 7, 2023: Jacques Coeur, el comerciante de fortuna legendaria que puso las bases de la riqueza de Francia comerciando con el Levante

SOURCES

Louisa Stuart Costello, Jacques Coeur, The French Argonaut and his times

Robert Guillot, Jacques Coeur de Bourges

Pierre Clément, Jacques Coeur et Charles VII

Jacques-Henri Bauchy, Jacques Coeur. Roi sans couronne

Wikipedia, Jacques Cœur

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