Like almost every country, especially those spanning vast territories, China went through a unification process that culminated during the reign of the Qin dynasty, in the era known as the Warring States period, in 221 BCE. However, not everything was resolved at that point. Less than a century later, some kings made a final attempt to resist the imperial ambition of further centralizing the territory. This occurred during the Han dynasty and is known as the Rebellion of the Seven States.

Before Emperor Qin Shi Huang completed this unification process, ancient China was divided into numerous states that were very different from one another, some being full-fledged kingdoms while others, the majority, were no more than city-states; around 150 in total. Their only commonality was their subordination to the power of the Zhou dynasty, to which they paid tribute. These states were identified with the suffix guó (nation) added to their name, and in practice, they were feudal domains often granted by the wáng (king) in exchange for military service.

However, the larger kingdoms managed to remain independent. For example, Wu and Yue (in the east), Chu (in the south), and Qin (in the west) were considered barbarian and were not part of the tributary system, as was the case with Ba and Shu (in the far west), which were not considered Chinese. This situation persisted until well into the 8th century BCE, when what is known as the Spring and Autumn Period began—a 300-year era during which four major powers emerged: Qin (west), Jin (central-west), Chu (south), and Qi (east). These powers gradually annexed smaller states and challenged the Zhou’s supreme authority.

Rebellion Seven States China
Chinese states during the Zhou dynasty. Credit: SY / Wikimedia Commons

The dynasty collapsed in 256 BCE. By then, seven major states had been formed: Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Yan, Wei, and Zhao, which absorbed smaller states while simultaneously defending themselves from rival attacks. In fact, they not only fought each other but also faced external incursions from nomadic peoples like the Quanrong or Xiongnu. Qin Shi Huang, considered the first emperor of a unified China, took the lead after conquering the “non-Chinese” states of Ba and Shu. He then initiated a process of centralization and suppression of the feudal system, transforming other states into mere administrative divisions governed by merit-based officials instead of familial ties.

Although the Qin dynasty lasted only 15 years, its era was highly productive: it unified not only the territory but also the currency, writing system, and units of weight and measurement. It was during this time that the construction of the Great Wall began, the famous Terracotta Army of Xi’an was created, and an imperial legal code was established. The Qin were succeeded by the Han, who adopted a different policy. On the one hand, they reinstated classical philosophy, which had been eliminated by their predecessors.

On the other hand, especially under the rule of Emperor Gaozu, they transformed parts of the country not directly controlled by the central government into principalities, appointing family members to lead them, while rewarding loyal military officers with fiefs. Both groups gradually increased their power until they controlled more than a third of the country, growing strong enough to mint their own currency, collect taxes, and establish autonomous laws.

Rebellion Seven States China
Qin Shi-Huang, first emperor of China. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

This led to a growing detachment from the imperial government, with the principality of Wu as the most prominent example. This culminated in 156 BCE, when Emperor Jing ascended the throne, determined to address the situation for several reasons. First, to curb the growth of these principalities, which could turn against him at any moment. Second, because Wu was rich in natural resources, especially copper and salt. And third, because the ruler of Wu, Liu Pi, was his cousin, a nephew of Emperor Gaozu, with whom Jing had a long-standing feud. This feud was particularly significant because, years earlier, while still the crown prince, Jing had killed Liu Pi’s son after being insulted during a game of liubo (a board game) they were playing.

Thus, Jing set out to abolish the fiefs once more, following the advice of his imperial secretary, Chao Cuo, a renowned philosopher from Yuzhou (Henan province) who had also served the previous emperor. Cuo suggested provoking the princes to rebel as quickly as possible so they could be defeated before they had time to form alliances or gather support.

To this end, accusations of misconduct were leveled against them. In 154 BCE, it was decreed that Liu Wu, Prince of Chu, had engaged in sexual relations during the mourning period for Empress Dowager Bo (which was forbidden), while Liu Ang, Prince of Jiaoxi, was accused of embezzlement. Other princes, including Liu Pi, faced various charges.

Rebellion Seven States China
Emperor Jing. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

As the counselor foresaw, those territories rose up in arms in what is known as the Rebellion of the Seven States. The seven were Wu, Chu, Jiaoxi, Jiaodong, Zichuan, Jinan, and Zhao. Others like Jibei and Qi pledged to join but ultimately did not; the former because its ruler was arrested preventively, and the latter because he eventually chose to support the emperor. Since the principalities of Huainan, Lujiang, and Hengshan also remained neutral, the rebels could only obtain help from the independent kingdoms of Donghai, Minyue, and Xiongnu; the first two sent troops, but the third merely promised them without following through.

Interestingly, the first fatality of that conflict was precisely the one who lit the spark: Chao Cuo. His many political enemies at court—a common occurrence in that role—led by Minister Yuan Ang, convinced the emperor that all of this could have been avoided and that the rebels could have been curbed without sparking a war. Consequently, that same year, Cuo was executed to ease tensions and pacify the rebels. However, Jing was faced with the harsh reality that he had been deceived in a power struggle between ministers, losing his best advisor while the rebellion continued unabated.

There was no choice but to confront it, for which he appointed General Zhou Yafu, one of those who had elevated the previous emperor, Wen, to the throne and who was well-regarded for his efficiency in both administrative and military matters. Yafu immediately set out to rescue the principality of Liang, governed by Liu Wu, Jing’s younger brother, whose capital, Suiyang, was under siege by the troops of Wu and Chu. But instead of breaking the siege directly, he skillfully cut off the attackers’ supply lines. Without provisions, the attackers lifted the siege to launch a direct attack on Yafu’s camp but failed, and hunger spread among their soldiers, disbanding the army.

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Evolution of the rebellion. Credit: SY / Wikimedia Commons

Liu Pi had to flee and take refuge in Donghai, where he was assassinated. Liu Chu, Prince of Chu, committed suicide. Interestingly, those deaths were followed by that of their victor, who, according to tradition, died from becoming overly emotional about his triumph. However, the war was not over.

Since the principality of Qi had failed to fulfill its promise to join the rebellion, its capital, Linzi, was being besieged by four states. Nonetheless, it managed to resist, and its change of allegiance earned its prince, Liu Jianglü, a pardon from the emperor for his initial betrayal (although he, ashamed, chose to take his own life).

The same fate befell the prince of Jiaoxi after the final defeat, while the princes of the other three rebel states were sentenced to death. Only Zhao remained, but its survival depended on reinforcements from the Xiongnu, which, as we saw, were never sent due to the war’s changing course. Defeated, its prince, Liu Sui, also committed suicide. Thus ended the Rebellion of the Seven States, which lasted barely three months. China was definitively unified.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on October 2, 2019: Cómo una discusión por un juego de tablero acabó en la Rebelión de los Siete Estados, que propició la unificación china

SOURCES

Gregorio Doval Huecas, Breve historia de la China milenaria

Tan Koon San, Dynastic China. An elementary history

Charles O. Hucker, China’s oimperial past. An introduction to Chinese history and culture

John Keay, China. A history

Wikipedia, Rebellion of the Seven States

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