A remarkable papyrus recently unearthed from the collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority offers unprecedented insights into Roman legal procedures and life in the Near East. Scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem collaborated to analyze this unique find, now published in the international academic journal Tyche.
This document sheds light on how the Roman Empire combated financial crimes, specifically tax fraud involving slaves, in the provinces of Judea and Arabia during a tumultuous period marked by two major Jewish revolts.
The Greek-language papyrus, spanning over 133 lines, is the longest of its kind discovered in the Judean Desert. Initially mislabeled as Nabatean, the text went unnoticed for decades until its reclassification in 2014 by Professor Hannah Cotton Paltiel of the Hebrew University. Her revelation that the text was Greek led to its naming as “P. Cotton”, following papyrological conventions. Recognizing the document’s extraordinary legal and historical significance, Cotton assembled an international team to decode its contents.
The papyrus presents notes from prosecutors preparing for a Roman legal trial. The case unfolded during the years leading to the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) and features details of a criminal investigation into forgery, tax evasion, and fraudulent transactions involving slaves.
The accused, Gadalias and Saulos, were allegedly involved in corrupt practices, including falsified documents and fictitious slave sales to evade Roman taxes. Gadalias, a notary’s son and likely a Roman citizen, had a history of criminal activities, including extortion, forgery, and incitement to rebellion. Saulos, his accomplice, organized fraudulent manumissions, further complicating the case.
Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences noted the vibrancy and directness of the language used in the papyrus, which contains a prosecutor’s strategic advice and preparations for the trial. These records offer a rare and detailed glimpse into Roman judicial processes in the Greek-speaking eastern provinces. The text also implicates the accused in potential rebellious activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region in 129–130 CE, underscoring the heightened tensions of the era.
The crimes detailed in the papyrus carried severe penalties under Roman law, ranging from forced labor to capital punishment. The document highlights the empire’s rigorous enforcement of laws even in its remote provinces. It also raises questions about the accused’s motives, as freeing slaves does not appear to have been a lucrative scheme. Some scholars suggest the case may have involved human trafficking or the Jewish obligation to redeem enslaved co-religionists, adding layers of complexity to the narrative.
Moreover, the papyrus illuminates the structure and reach of Roman governance in the eastern provinces. It references the governor of Judea, the role of jurors, and the regulation of private transactions, demonstrating that Roman administrative practices documented in Egypt were applied throughout the empire. Professor Fritz Mitthof of the University of Vienna emphasized that this discovery underscores the adaptability and uniformity of Roman institutions across diverse territories.
Originating likely from a Judean Desert refuge during the Bar Kokhba revolt, the papyrus’s meticulous preservation and its ultimate impact on the legal proceedings remain mysteries. The tumultuous historical context, combined with the document’s rich legal content, provides an extraordinary window into the complexities of Roman law and life in an era of conflict and change.
SOURCES
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Anna Dolganov, Fritz Mitthof, Hannah M. Cotton, Avner Ecker, Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial before a Roman Official (P.Cotton). Tyche, Bd. 38 (2023). doi.org/10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5
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