Ephesus, one of the most iconic cities of antiquity, renowned for its rich commercial and cultural history, has unveiled new secrets thanks to a study that connects Roman mural art with trade routes and pigment production techniques of the era.

International researchers have analyzed samples of cinnabar (a bright red mineral used as a pigment) found in historic buildings of the city, offering clues about its origin, quality, and the processing methods employed by the ancients.

This work, led by an interdisciplinary team of archaeologists, geologists, and chemists, sheds light on how cinnabar was essential not only in art but also in the economy and social organization of Ephesus during the Roman period, between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE.

Ephesus cinnabar
Site and sample location maps, incl. the Agora, Terrace House 1 and 2, with the collected samples. Credit: Alexandra Rodler-Rørbo et al.

Cinnabar, composed primarily of mercury sulfide, was highly valued in antiquity for its vibrant color and durability. According to classical sources such as Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius, this material was sourced from mines in locations like Almadén, in Spain, and the “fields of Cilbia” near Ephesus. Its preparation involved a meticulous process of grinding and washing to purify it and enhance its intensity.

In Ephesus, the mural paintings that adorned both public and private buildings were a testament to the city’s wealth and cultural refinement. However, until now, little was known about the exact provenance of the pigments used.

The study combined isotopic and microscopic analysis methods to unravel the history of the cinnabar found in Ephesus. Fragments of murals from three key locations were analyzed: the Agora (the city’s commercial center), and the Terrace Houses 1 and 2 (elite residential complexes).

Ephesus cinnabar
Pure cinnabar, with the surface covered by crystals. Being an old specimen, they are partially obscured by the action of light. Almaden Mine, (Ciudad Real) Spain. Credit: Miguel Calvo / Wikimedia Commons

The results showed that while some pigments matched local deposits on the Karaburun Peninsula, others appeared to have more distant origins, including possible connections to mines in Spain and the Balkans. This suggests an extensive and sophisticated trade network that transported precious materials across the Roman Empire.

Moreover, microscopic analysis revealed four different painting techniques, ranging from thin layers of cinnabar mixed with ochre to thick, pure applications of the pigment. These variations reflect not only aesthetic preferences but also the economic and logistical constraints of the time.

Isotopic data, particularly lead and mercury ratios, indicate that the cinnabar used in Ephesus did not come from a single source.

Ephesus cinnabar
Field photographs at sites where cinnabar was collected at Kalecik (A-B) and Dikencik (C-D), and examples of wall painting fragments where samples were collected. Credit: L.V. Sørensen, B. Çakmakoğlu, C. Helvacı / A. Rodler-Rørbo

In some cases, the pigments appeared to be a mixture of materials from different origins, raising the hypothesis that pigments may have been processed in specialized workshops before distribution.

The study highlights the importance of Ephesus as a strategic node in Mediterranean trade routes. Its privileged location allowed artisans to access high-quality resources from both local and international sources, reinforcing its status as one of the most influential cities of Asia Minor during the Roman era.

The organization of workshops, the importation of pigments, and the techniques used reflect how art was intrinsically linked to the social and economic structures of the Empire. Ephesus continues to speak, and its colors are a vibrant message from the depths of history.

SOURCES

Alexandra Rodler-Rørbo, Anthony J. Baragona, et al., Cinnabar for Roman Ephesus: Material quality, processing and provenance. Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 173, January 2025, 106122. doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2024.106122

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