As its name indicates, the Spanish Cape of Finisterre (finis terrae) was considered in Antiquity as the westernmost limit of the known world. But where was the eastern border located at that time?

It was Alexander the Great who, in 329 BCE, established this boundary—at least in its northernmost part—of the Greco-Roman world, which remained unchanged until the 15th century when the so-called Age of Discoveries expanded geographical knowledge: the Jaxartes River, now known as the Syr Darya, flows through three countries (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan) and was the site where the Macedonian won a battle against the Scythians, allowing him to pacify the region despite being injured.

The Jaxartes, also known in classical sources as Orexartes (a name derived from the Persian Yakhsha Arta, meaning “Great Pearly” in reference to the color of its waters), is one of the longest river courses on Earth, stretching 2,212 kilometers from its dual sources in the Tien Shan mountains and the Naryn and Kara Darya rivers (which would increase its length if these sources were included) to its mouth in the Aral Sea.

Jaxartes River Battle
The current course of the Syr Darya River. Credit: DEMIS Mapserver / Wikimedia Commons

Its flow is modest, around 37 cubic kilometers annually, due to massive exploitation by the Soviets for irrigation, contributing to the drying of the aforementioned sea.

But that is the current situation; in ancient times, things were different. Although not particularly voluminous, the river carried more water (in fact, in medieval Muslim documentation, it was identified with one of the four rivers of Paradise, the Sayhoun), which was enough to pose an obstacle to an advancing army.

This was precisely the challenge faced by Alexander’s forces when their foragers were attacked by surprise, and the attackers—Scythian troops—retreated to the opposite bank of the Jaxartes, preparing for defense.

Jaxartes River Battle
Alexandria Eschate, located at the northeastern edge of Alexander’s empire. Credit: Mircalla22 / Wikimedia Commons

It all began in 334 BCE when the Macedonian, already the master of Greece but needing a common goal to unite all, chose to avenge the past Persian invasions and liberate the Hellenic cities of Asia Minor, fulfilling the vision of his father, Philip. Thus, he crossed the Hellespont at the head of forty thousand men and gradually executed the plan, which he soon expanded with greater ambitions: conquering the Persian Empire. Victories at the Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela sent the Achaemenid king, Darius III, fleeing, allowing Alexander to seize much of his territory.

This was not enough for him. Aware of the wealth of the provinces beyond Mesopotamia, he established his operational base in this region, capturing Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. Only three years had passed since the campaign began, but Darius remained at large in central Asia, posing both a general threat and a personal obstacle for someone aspiring to claim the title of King of Kings. The assassination of the unfortunate monarch in Ecbatana by his own aides resolved the matter.

However, many satrapies of the empire had taken advantage of the power vacuum to rebel, and Alexander understood that he could not allow this, as it could trigger a domino effect. Consequently, he marched toward Bactria, chosen as the first region for pacification. Corresponding to the northern part of present-day Afghanistan and southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, Bactria—or Bactriana—spanned between Arachosia to the south, Drangiana and Hyrcania to the west, Gandhara to the east, and Sogdiana, Transoxiana, and Scythia to the north.

Jaxartes River Battle
The Syr Darya (Jaxartes) River today. Credit: Petar Milošević / Wikimedia Commons

The inhabitants of the latter were the Scythians, who also constituted the principal ethnic group of northern Bactria. They were a collection of nomadic peoples of Iranian origin spread across a vast area of the Eurasian steppe, devoted to herding and horse breeding. One of their most prominent tribes was the Sakas, who lived in Central Asia, from what is now Ukraine to southern Russia, including the Chinese region of Xinjiang and the Turan Plain (most of Turkmenistan, along with parts of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan).

The Sakas spoke an Indo-European language and are believed to have descended from the Andronovo culture, eventually settling in what was called Sacastan, a region partly in Afghanistan and partly in Iran. The Persians identified them with the Scythians in their sources and were well acquainted with them due to frequent clashes, as in the times of Cyrus the Great and Darius I, who seized their territory and renamed it Chorasmia. The Macedonians had not yet faced the Sakas but had encountered other Scythian tribes of the Pontic steppe, united by King Ateas, who expanded into Thrace until confronting Philip II in 339 BCE, according to Strabo.

Eight years later, Zopyrion, a general of Alexander, sought to capitalize on the disintegration of Scythian dominance to earn favor with his leader, launching a campaign of conquest in Crimea that ended in a catastrophic defeat. Let us not dwell on this; instead, we focus on the events of 329 BCE when Philip’s son reached Bactria determined to end its rebellion and, perhaps unknowingly, became the coveted target of Scythians seeking to avenge Ateas’s death.

Jaxartes River Battle
Macedonians crossing the Jaxartes River in a 19th century drawing by Edmund Ollier. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

The truth is that the Macedonians aimed to restore order and, incidentally, to build one of those cities Alexander founded for his personal glory: Alexandria Eschate (what is today Khujand in Tajikistan), which is speculated to have been a refoundation of Cyropolis, another city erected earlier by Cyrus the Great as a frontier stronghold of the Achaemenid Empire (in fact, its name could be translated as “Far Alexandria” or “Final Alexandria”). Alexander also followed the strategy of dotting the borders with fortresses, and this one was intended to control Sogdiana.

The area around this settlement was inhabited by the Saka, whose interaction with the Macedonians assigned to the works must have sparked tensions as the former believed Alexander was preparing a base from which to launch an invasion of neighboring Scythia. And if the Saka thought so, the Scythians beyond the border viewed it with even greater concern—so much so that their king sent an army to counter the threat: between twenty thousand and thirty thousand men (on horseback, as was their martial tradition), led by the king’s own brother, Satraces.

Using their characteristic tactic of surprise attacks followed by swift retreats, these forces harassed the various Macedonian patrols scattered throughout the region, including the foragers responsible for gathering supplies, even wounding Alexander himself slightly in the neck. Afterward, they crossed the Jaxartes and waited on the opposite bank for the predictable counterattack, shielded by the river’s current and elevated terrain favorable for defense. Alexander had far fewer troops, about six thousand, but he could not let such an affront pass without risking a domino effect where all the satrapies might rise against him.

Jaxartes River Battle
First phase of the battle: The Macedonians cross the river covered by catapult fire. Credit: Stephen Smith / Wikimedia Commons

The problem was that his personal priest, Aristander, informed him of the negative omen revealed by the sacrifices performed before entering combat, according to custom. Thus, Alexander delayed the order to advance until the Saka provocations from the opposite bank became too blatant to ignore, and he finally resolved to confront them. But to do so, he first had to cross the river, always a perilous undertaking because soldiers were vulnerable to enemy arrows while in the water, and maintaining a phalanx formation upon reaching land was nearly impossible.

However, it was not the first time Alexander faced such a situation; his first battle in Asia Minor years earlier against Persians and Greek mercenaries had taken place at the Granicus River, and he had handled it brilliantly. As in that earlier instance, religious omens were unfavorable, and the opponent was mainly cavalry. However, the circumstances were different because the Jaxartes carried significantly more water than the Granicus. Therefore, the crossing had to be executed as quickly as possible to avoid prolonged exposure to Saka archers.

The solution was a display of imagination and audacity, characteristic of him: since the river’s width prevented his archers from accurately reaching the opposite bank, he set up a line of catapults along the shore to continuously fire and cover the boats, each of which also carried a catapult at its bow. In this way, the archers could remain sheltered during the challenging operation, and when they disembarked with minimal casualties, they played a crucial role.

Jaxartes River Battle
Second phase of the battle: Macedonian archers and auxiliary cavalry manage to cross the river but are surrounded by thousands of Scythian horsemen. Credit: Stephen Smith / Wikimedia Commons

Beforehand, the catapults fulfilled their mission: the projectiles devastated the Saka front lines and even killed a prominent chief, rendering their arrows ineffective and insufficient to halt the flotilla. Indeed, once ashore, the Macedonian archers could, in turn, cover the hoplites and cavalry crossing, allowing them to engage in open battle. The Saka were unaccustomed to fighting this way, so they began to retreat. But Alexander, having sunk his teeth into the enemy, was unwilling to let go.

Thus, he dispatched a squadron of mercenary horsemen and four more of mounted lancers as a shock force to pin the enemy, enabling the phalanx to engage (the classic anvil-and-hammer tactic). The Saka must have found this idea of sacrificing troops bewildering, as it was absent in their culture, but they prepared to crush it with their overwhelming numerical superiority. Unfortunately for them, they were falling into the trap, and as planned, Alexander ordered the phalanx forward while sending archers and peltasts (light infantry) to support the five hundred surrounded men.

Next, he led the Hetairoi (“Companions,” his elite cavalry and personal guard, deployed at the decisive moment), dividing them into two groups to charge wedge-like at the enemy’s flanks, with a third attacking head-on. These four thousand centaurs descended like a wave upon the Saka ranks, which buckled under their onslaught. The flank nearest the river disintegrated and began a retreat, colliding with its own disorganized ranks.

Jaxartes River Battle
Final phase of the battle: While archers and auxiliaries pin the enemy, the Hetairoi attack their flanks and break their lines. Credit: Stephen Smith / Wikimedia Commons

This marked the end of the battle, as the Saka conceded defeat and fled. Determined to finish them off, Alexander pursued them for about fifteen kilometers until an arrow wounded his leg. Although not severe, coupled with his recent neck injury and dysentery, he gave up further pursuit. However, the sight of their injured general being carried away enraged the Macedonian soldiers still fighting on the hill against the enemy’s final resistance. They launched such a brutal assault that they not only defeated but also massacred their opponents.

It is estimated that the Saka suffered twelve thousand casualties, including Satraces. If there were not more, it was because dysentery had also afflicted most of the Macedonian troops, leaving them unable to chase the survivors. Thus, only about one hundred and fifty prisoners were taken, though nearly two thousand horses were captured. As we have seen, Alexander also paid with his blood, spending several months bedridden, transported south on a litter.

Ironically, the slaughter could have been avoided because Alexander had no intention of invading Scythia; he merely sought to secure the territory ahead to consolidate his control over the former Persian Empire. Consequently, he signed a truce with the Scythians, releasing the captives without demanding ransom, thereby ensuring peace in the northeast. That frontier remained the boundary of the Western world for the next eighteen centuries.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on September 15, 2023: El río Jaxartes, la batalla en la que Alejandro venció a los escitas usando catapultas, herido y con casi todo su ejército enfermo de disentería

SOURCES

Quinto Curcio Rufo, Historia de Alejandro Magno

Justino, Epítome de las “Historias filípicas de Pompeyo Trogo”

Lucio Flavio Arriano, Anábasis de Alejandro Magno

Plutarco, Vidas paralelas

Diodoro Sículo, Biblioteca histórica

Ruth Sheppard, Alejandro Magno. Su ejército. Sus batallas. Sus enemigos

A. B. Bosworth, Alejandro Magno

Yumna Zhara Nadezhda Khan, A comentary on Dyonisius of Alexandria’s. Guide to the Inhabited World, 174-382

Wikipedia, Batalla del Jaxartes

  • Share on:

Discover more from LBV Magazine English Edition

Subscribe to get the latest posts sent to your email.

Something went wrong. Please refresh the page and/or try again.

Follow LBV Magazine on Google News