At the archaeological site of Shakhi Kora, located in the Iraqi Kurdistan region, excavations have provided new insights into the origin and evolution of the earliest state institutions, dated to the fourth millennium BCE.

An international team led by Professor Claudia Glatz from the University of Glasgow has uncovered structures and objects that reveal both the rise and abandonment of centralized forms of organization, offering key evidence of how these societies dealt with hierarchical power.

Since 2019, the research has been part of the Sirwan Regional Project, in collaboration with the Directorate of Antiquities of Garmian, and has uncovered a set of institutional structures that operated for several centuries. Among the findings are rudimentary vessels used to serve large-scale communal meals, likely as payment for workers associated with these institutions.

Shakhi Kora
Aerial view of the 2023 exposure in Area I at Shakhi Kora. Credit: C. Glatz et al.

Analyses of organic and skeletal remains show that these meals consisted of hearty meat stews, reinforcing the idea that early state organizations were based, at least in part, on their ability to distribute food and resources to the population.

The site also provides evidence of a significant cultural transition: from local traditions to influences associated with the ancient city of Uruk, one of the world’s first cities, known for its monumental complexes and the earliest written texts on clay tablets. This connection reflects how Shakhi Kora became integrated into broader networks of interaction and state control.

However, the most surprising discovery is the deliberate abandonment of the final institutional structures. There are no signs of violent destruction or environmental stress, suggesting that local communities consciously chose to dismantle this centralized system of authority.

Shakhi Kora
Possible ritual pillar deposits (A & B) and a reclining ram figurine [C]. Credit: C. Glatz et al.

According to Professor Glatz, this finding challenges the notion that the evolution of hierarchical governments was an inevitable process in early complex societies. Instead, it demonstrates that communities had the ability to resist and reject centralized and hierarchical forms of organization when they became oppressive or contrary to their interests.

Salah Mohammed Sameen, director of the Department of Antiquities and Heritage of Garmian, emphasized that the findings at Shakhi Kora provide crucial data for understanding this key period in the history of Iraqi Kurdistan.

The discovered rituals and evidence of communal banquets highlight that state institutions not only managed resources but also fulfilled significant symbolic and social functions.

Shakhi Kora
Cooking and serving area to the east of the pillared hall (A) and a storage area to the west (B). Credit: C. Glatz et al.

Ultimately, these findings redefine our understanding of how the first forms of centralized government emerged and how they were confronted by local communities, revealing a complex dynamic in the early history of Mesopotamia.

SOURCES

Antiquity

Glatz C, Del Bravo F, Chelazzi F, et al. There and back again: local institutions, an Uruk expansion and the rejection of centralisation in the Sirwan/Upper Diyala region. Antiquity. Published online 2024:1-16. doi:10.15184/aqy.2024.189

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