In the same year, 183 BCE, two great figures of ancient military history passed away. One was the Roman Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus; the other, a Greek whose body was cremated in a ceremony of great solemnity, attended by emotional Achaean warriors, where the historian Polybius had the honor of carrying the urn containing the ashes of the deceased. This man was a citizen of Megalopolis, like himself: his compatriot Philopoemen, who thwarted Sparta’s attempt at resurgence and of whom the geographer Pausanias wrote that after him, Greece ceased to produce good men.

Indeed, Philopoemen was born in that Arcadian polis, in central Peloponnesus, in 253 BCE. His father, Craugis, died when he was young, so he had to be adopted by Cleander, an important notable who hired the best educators for his new protégé: the local philosophers Ecdemus and Demophanes, whose actions had been decisive in overthrowing the tyrants of Sicyon and Cyrene. Although Megalopolis had been governed by a system of ten magistrates and an assembly of free Arcadians, the Ten Thousand, which annually elected a demiurge and a strategos, it experienced a period dominated by tyrants during the 3rd century BCE.

With such teachers, it was almost inevitable that Philopoemen would become a defender of democracy, always striving to follow in the footsteps of the Theban Epaminondas, one of Greece’s great statesmen and generals. Epaminondas, founder of the Arcadian League, had always upheld virtue and austerity as essential values for any ruler, considering them inherent to their role as a public servant. Philopoemen embraced this ideal and lived his life modestly, dressing simply without luxury or ostentatious adornments.

Cleomenes war
The Peloponnesus During the Cleomenean War. Credit: MapMaster / Rowanwindwhistler / Wikimedia Commons

Philopoemen entered the historical stage at the age of thirty, in 223 BCE, when his city was besieged by the forces of Spartan King Cleomenes III. The king had regained the throne under challenging circumstances, after being exiled with his father, and now sought to counteract the centrifugal tendencies of various Arcadian poleis and a declaration of war by the expansionist Achaean League, a confederation formed by the Peloponnesian poleis of Sicyon, Argos, Corinth, Megara, Troezen, Epidaurus, and the islands of Aegina and Salamis, which had recently incorporated Megalopolis.

Philopoemen was one of the defenders during this siege and served in the cavalry. In one of the battles, he lost his mount and was wounded, though not severely, and he continued fighting to allow the residents time to evacuate to Messenia for refuge. Cleomenes sent envoys guaranteeing the safety of the people if they agreed to return; however, Philopoemen convinced them to reject the offer, warning that if they returned, the king would not only capture their homes but also them. Ultimately, his reasoning prevailed, and the Spartans razed Megalopolis in retaliation.

Despite this, Philopoemen had earned the respect of his people; thus, once recovered from his injuries, he resumed arms to continue fighting in subsequent events. The first came within a year, thanks to Macedonia’s intervention in the conflict. Its monarch, Antigonus III Doson, seeking to restore his country’s influence in the Peloponnesus from a couple of decades prior, secured his rear by signing treaties with Thessaly, Achaea, Boeotia, and Acarnania to launch an invasion.

The Spartans lost Argos and watched helplessly as the Macedonians also seized Orchomenus and Mantinea, advancing toward Laconia. Cleomenes attempted to stop them by blocking mountain passes, but one, at Sellasia, remained open. He had to personally lead his troops there. Antigonus III also marched to Sellasia with his allies from the Achaean League, among whom was Philopoemen, stationed on the left flank in command of a cavalry force of approximately 650 horsemen from Megalopolis, Illyria, Boeotia, Achaea, Acarnania, and Epirus.

Battle of Sellasia
Troop Deployment at the Battle of Sellasia. Credit: Leonidas1206 / Wikimedia Commons

The battle began, and the Spartan phalanx pressed the enemy with the help of light infantry attacking its rear. Antigonus was in serious trouble and only escaped thanks to Philopoemen, who, realizing the danger, disobeyed orders to hold his position and charged, causing the enemy hoplites to flee and inflicting heavy losses (according to Plutarch, only 200 of the 6,000 survived). Cleomenes managed to escape to Egypt, but Sparta was conquered for the first time in its history.

As before, Philopoemen lost his horse and received a javelin wound, but again he endured and continued fighting until the end, earning the praise of Antigonus, who even offered him a position in his service. However, Philopoemen declined. Instead, in 221 BCE, he embarked for Crete, where he spent a decade participating in the armed conflicts between the island’s poleis as captain of a mercenary company, thus acquiring substantial military experience.

In 210 BCE, he returned to the mainland with such renown that he was entrusted with the command of the cavalry of the Achaean League, just as the First Macedonian War reached its peak. This war pitted the kingdom of the now-reigning Philip V against the Roman Republic. The Achaeans aligned with the Macedonians against this external enemy, which sought to curb their approach to Carthage, as the Second Punic War was being waged simultaneously. At the Larissa River, he confronted a coalition of Aetolians and Eleans, whose cavalry commander, Damophantus, emerged as the perfect nemesis for Philopoemen.

They had the opportunity to confront each other personally when Damophantus abandoned his formation to challenge him to a personal duel. Philopoemen accepted and charged at him with great speed, so much so that the other was surprised and could not avoid a spear thrust that knocked him down; his cavalry, impressed, fled, and Philopoemen increased his prestige, making it clear, as Plutarch says, that he was neither inferior in strength to any of the young men nor in prudence to any of the elders, but was as suited to fighting as he was to commanding.

The Recognition of Philopoemen
A Woman Recognizes Philopoemen, painting by Rubens (c.1609). Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Bringing these commendable words to life, in 209 BC, Philopoemen was promoted, becoming strategos of the Achaean League. In this role, he clashed with Aratus, the tyrant of Sicyon who led the League but, despite his diplomatic achievements, was reluctant to go to war, whereas the new general had demonstrated that his great strength lay in taking to the battlefield. In fact, Philopoemen undertook a military reform in which he changed the weaponry to heavier equipment, as in ancient times, and the tactics, restoring the closed formation.

Thus, the soldiers not only had better personal protection and improved weaponry but, being subjected to rigorous training, became a formidable force, proud of their military attire and appearance. They soon had the opportunity to test the results of these efforts, as Sparta once again emerged as a threat. The crown now fell to Pelops, son of Cleomenes III, who, being still a child, had Machanidas as regent, a shadowy figure about whom little is known.

It seems he lacked royal lineage, so perhaps he was a former mercenary from Tarentum. Somehow, he seized power and ruled as a tyrant, disregarding the ephors (the five magistrates who governed) and relying on his loyal followers. Machanidas, viewed with suspicion by Macedonia and the Achaean League, reacted by allying with Rome, and Rome found in him the perfect man in Greece to counter Philip V’s rapprochement with Carthage. In 207 BC, while peace was being negotiated among the Greek city-states involved in the Aetolian War, Machanidas attempted to conquer Elis, a territory considered sacred.

The arrival of Macedonian and Achaean troops forced him to desist and return to the Peloponnese to defend the peninsula, as capturing it was Philip V’s objective. The matter was decided in Arcadia at the Battle of Mantinea (not to be confused with the eponymous battles fought in 418 BC and 362 BC). Philopoemen, who had spent the last eight months training his troops, achieved a resounding victory thanks to his ability to reorganize his forces after an initial enemy advantage, exploiting the fact that the enemy became distracted looting the fallen rather than pursuing the retreating forces.

Greek world 200 BC
The Aegean and the Greek world around 200 BCE. Credit: Marsias / Willyboy / Wikimedia Commons

But Mantinea became another moment of glory for Philopoemen because, as had happened at the river Larisa, he managed to kill Machanidas in single combat and put his mercenaries to flight. This new feat later earned him a bronze statue in his honor at the sanctuary of Delphi, depicting that moment of combat with the Spartan tyrant. For now, the results were more practical: the capture of Tegea, the principal polis of Arcadia, and an open path to the Eurotas River.

Shortly afterward, the Nemean Games were held, during which, before an enthusiastic audience, Philopoemen paraded at the head of his army in a spectacular display celebrated by the citharist Pylades with verses sung for the occasion: Freedom, honor, and glorious prestige, this man has won for Greece. However, these were not favorable times for shining so brightly, as standing out too much could be seen as a threat by others, even allies, as indeed happened with Philip V.

In 205 BC, the Macedonian monarch signed the Treaty of Phoenice, which marked peace with Rome, and he feared that Philopoemen would be an insurmountable obstacle to achieving his next objective, which was to maintain control over the Achaean League. This became evident in 201 BC, when the drums of war resounded once more against a defiant Sparta, which once again threatened to expand across the Peloponnese. This time under the command of Nabis, the man who replaced Machanidas as Pelops’ guardian and who, after the latter’s death without effectively reigning, seized power as the new tyrant.

In fact, Nabis belonged to the royal family through the Eurypontid branch and proclaimed himself king after executing two candidates; but by disregarding the traditional diarchy and ruling outside the laws, historians of his time denied his legitimacy and considered his rule mere tyranny. Ironically, he was very popular among most of his people due to the socioeconomic revolution he initiated, abolishing debts and expropriating property from the wealthy to distribute it among the poor, as well as emancipating slaves and marrying them to the wives and daughters of their masters.

Titus Quinctius Flamininus
Titus Quinctius Flamininus addresses the Achaean League Council, fresco by Alessandro Allori. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

The money taken from the dominant classes allowed him to organize an army and a fleet—reinforced with Cretan pirates and perioeci—with which he aspired to restore Sparta’s role as a dominant power. The clash with the Achaean League occurred in 204 BC, but what initially was merely a dispute with Megalopolis escalated into war when he invaded Messenia three years later. It was then that Philopoemen captured Tegea, Philip V shifted his position and ceded Argos to Sparta… and Philopoemen, renewed in his position as strategos of the Achaean League, set out to confront Nabis, forcing him to abandon his aspirations.

He remained at the height of his fame, which is why the Cretan city of Gortyn requested his mercenary services in 199 BCE. Philopoemen thus returned to the island where he had forged his military genius, seizing the opportunity to adapt it to the island’s particular characteristics. This was despite his disdain for the unorthodox guerrilla tactics commonly practiced there, so different from the direct clashes of hoplite formations on the mainland. This phase lasted six years, and his return was met with the acclaim of the masses.

In his absence, Nabis had resumed hostilities, laying siege to Megalopolis and consolidating his control over Argos. His agreement with Philip V had earned him the enmity of both the Achaean League and Rome, whose general, Titus Quinctius Flamininus, had defeated the Macedonian king and become a proconsul. In 194 BCE, the Roman stripped Nabis of two cities, Argos and the Laconian polis of Gythium. Flamininus then departed from Greece, believing he had established a delicate balance of power among Macedonia, Sparta, the Achaean League, and Aetolia.

Things did not unfold as he expected. The Aetolians, having opposed Roman intervention, felt disadvantaged compared to the Macedonians and Achaeans. They incited Sparta to reclaim its hegemonic role, once again leading to war. The Achaean League renewed its trust in Philopoemen as strategos in 193 BCE. Since the Spartans were attempting to occupy the Laconian coast, a powerful naval force was necessary. The Achaeans sought Roman assistance, and the praetor Atilius arrived with a fleet.

Philopoemen
The most significant moments in Philopoemen’s life. Credit: Wikimedia Commons

However, Philopoemen chose not to wait for the Romans and took the initiative against Nabis. Unfortunately for him, his military expertise on land did not extend to the sea, and his fleet was defeated by a Persian one serving Sparta. Worse still, although his infantry prevailed over the enemy forces, they were unable to overcome the defenses at Gythium, forcing a retreat to Tegea. This was not a final withdrawal, as he reorganized his forces and launched a second attack. While it initially favored his side, it faced frustration.

This was because the Roman Senate had appointed Flamininus as ambassador. He arrived in Greece intent on restoring the status quo and prevented the Achaeans from besieging Sparta. This proved difficult. While Nabis was initially amenable, an Aetolian army he had summoned turned against him upon learning of his dealings with the Romans. Instead of cooperating, they attacked and looted the city. Although the inhabitants eventually expelled them, Nabis was assassinated, leaving a power vacuum that Philopoemen exploited to enter the polis and force it to join the Achaean League.

Sparta’s presence in the league proved uncomfortable, as Spartans felt their inclusion was coerced, and they were viewed with suspicion in a league that had long harbored Laconian dissenters. Indeed, Philopoemen recruited many of these dissenters for his troops and, in 188 BCE, invaded northern Laconia, reinstating them in power. He implemented a policy replacing Lycurgus’ laws and Spartan traditions with Achaean-inspired governance.

Thus, Sparta’s historical prominence came to an end, while the Achaean League solidified its hegemonic status in the Peloponnese. Unsurprisingly, many Spartans resisted this and rallied around General Diophanes, advocating for leaving the league and seeking Roman intervention. The Achaeans opposed such interference, citing a treaty in which Rome had recognized their independence and authority in Greece. Some even expressed hostility, which Philopoemen sought to temper, aware of Roman power.

Philopoemen
Philopoemen and the poison, artwork by William Rainey. Credit: Public domain / Wikimedia Commons

Philopoemen personally traveled to Sparta to mediate, likely driven by his advanced age—seventy—and ill health. Fatigue surely weighed on him. During negotiations, his personal enemy, Dinocrates, led a revolt in Messenia, threatening to seize Colonides. Philopoemen could not ignore this without risking a widespread insurrection, so he marched with his cavalry to confront it. But Dinocrates ambushed him in rugged terrain unsuited for mounted troops.

Amid the skirmish, a fever-weakened Philopoemen lagged behind his men and eventually fell when his horse stumbled, leaving him unconscious on the ground. Initially, the Messenians thought he was dead, but upon realizing he was alive, they took him prisoner. Debate over his fate polarized between those who wanted to free him, remembering how he had liberated them from tyrants, and those advocating execution, citing him as a dangerous enemy. Dinocrates spurred the latter to prevail, especially as the Achaeans mobilized to rescue their general.

Yet, a standard execution was deemed unworthy of someone of his stature. Instead, he was offered the option to end his own life by taking poison. He accepted, dying quickly due to his already frail condition. Unsurprisingly, news of his death outraged the Achaeans, who appointed Lycortas as strategos and ravaged Messenia. Dinocrates took his own life to avoid capture, followed by his loyalists. Philopoemen’s body was cremated in a state funeral with the army in full regalia, while the populace wept inconsolably and hurled stones at the Messenian prisoners.

The urn containing his ashes was carried from town to town before being buried in Megalopolis by a procession led by Polybius, the son of a general. Later, Polybius opposed a notable Roman’s proposal to destroy the numerous statues and monuments dedicated to Philopoemen, arguing he was an enemy of Rome. According to Plutarch, the proposal was rejected because virtuous men must be honored by all good people. As mentioned at the outset, Pausanias echoed this sentiment three centuries later.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on December 12, 2024: Filopemén, el «último de los griegos», fue el general que acabó definitivamente con el poder de Esparta

SOURCES

Plutarco, Vidas paralelas: Filopemén

Polibio de Megalópolis, Historias

Daniel Jolowicz, Jaś Elsner, Articulating Resistance under the Roman Empire

Emmanouil M. L. Economou, The Achaean Federation in Ancient Greece

Wikipedia, Filopemén

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