A recent study, not yet peer-reviewed, proposes a reinterpretation of the famous Iron Age petroglyphs (helleristninger) in Norway and Sweden, suggesting that almost all of them were created by just four artists.
The research, conducted by Allan Krill, a professor of geology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, is based on advanced dating techniques and stylistic analysis, providing new insights into the understanding of these prehistoric remnants.
The study combines geological and archaeological data to argue that these petroglyphs and inscriptions, traditionally associated with the Stone Age and Bronze Age, mostly belong to a later period. According to Krill, the precise and deep marks of these inscriptions indicate the use of iron tools, dismissing the idea that they were made with stone tools. This finding places their creation in the Iron Age, around 400 CE.

Krill identifies four main artists behind these works: Steinn Stikkmann, Bårdr Båtmann, Ingi Innrisser, and Oddr Omrisser, who developed unique styles and techniques. Each left a characteristic imprint on their carvings, allowing their trajectories and artistic contributions to be traced.
Steinn Stikkmann, considered the inventor of the engraving technique using iron nails, began his work on the soft rocks of Trøndelag, in central Norway. He later took his art to regions of Sweden and other Scandinavian areas. His carvings, which include stylized human figures, ships with raised prows, and shoe prints, are notable for their geometric and meticulous design.
According to Krill, Stikkmann used iron nails, possibly taken from ships, to create these petroglyphs. His engraved panels contain runes from the ancient Futhark alphabet, helping date them to the 4th century.

The second artist identified, Bårdr Båtmann, focused his work on depicting ships. Although his style derived from Stikkmann’s, Båtmann remained primarily in the Stavanger region, in southwestern Norway. His ships display a more realistic design and reflect typical Iron Age vessels used for fishing and trade. Unlike his predecessor, Båtmann did not explore other artistic motifs.
Ingi Innrisser, the third prominent artist, is recognized for his variety of themes and his geographic reach. From the Arctic region of Alta to eastern Russia, Innrisser carved scenes that include deer, elk, and reindeer, often decorated with intricate patterns suggesting internal organs. He also depicted complex stories such as animal migrations, hunts, and group fishing activities. According to the analysis, his works reflect a deep connection to the cultural traditions of the region’s indigenous peoples.
The last of the artists, Oddr Omrisser, is distinguished by his naturalistic style and his tendency to overlay images on existing panels, often creating chaotic compositions. He used various techniques throughout his career, starting with rock paintings on frozen lakes and evolving to engravings with nails and scraping lichens to reveal color contrasts. Omrisser also introduced a three-dimensional approach to his engravings, adding depth and detail to his depictions of animals and humans.

A recurring theme in these artists’ carvings is the representation of ships, which Krill argues are precursors to the famous Viking ships. However, unlike Viking ships from the 8th century, those depicted in the inscriptions lack masts and sails, reinforcing their earlier origin. This connection suggests that the artists likely traveled in similar vessels, using leftover nails to carve their works at strategic stops along the Scandinavian coasts.
Krill’s study not only challenges traditional chronologies but also invites a reconsideration of the geographic distribution of these petroglyphs and inscriptions. According to his analysis, the absence of carvings in certain areas, such as Finland or southern Norway, is not due to cultural limitations but to the lack of visits by these artists. Additionally, his research underscores the importance of an interdisciplinary approach, combining geology, archaeology, and art to reinterpret the past.
Krill’s work opens the door to new investigations into Scandinavian rock art and its relationship with the cultural and technological dynamics of the Iron Age. His hypothesis about the four main artists provides a framework for analyzing stylistic and technical differences in the inscriptions, as well as their impact on later traditions, such as Viking runestones.
SOURCES
Allan Krill, Four Iron Age artists made nearly all the petroglyphs (hellesristninger) in Norway and Sweden. DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.25232.32007
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