Kalkriese Hill, located in northwestern Germany, has been identified for decades as a potential site of the historic Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE, a decisive confrontation between Roman legions and a coalition of Germanic tribes led by Arminius. However, a new geoarchaeological study casts doubt on traditional interpretations of the linear structures discovered at the site and their association with this historical event.

Since the initial discovery of Roman remains in 1987 by British Major Tony Clunn, archaeologists have intensely debated the nature of the structures and artifacts found at Kalkriese. It was believed that the geomorphological features, such as a supposed defensive wall and ditch, might provide evidence of a Germanic ambush or a Roman military camp. However, recent geoarchaeological analysis challenges these interpretations.

The study, led by Joachim W. Härtling, applied advanced absolute dating techniques, such as radiocarbon (C-14) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), to analyze the strata at the Oberesch site within Kalkriese. Surprisingly, the results suggest that both the “Germanic wall” and the “Roman camp” may be structures from the Early Middle Ages, much later than the Roman-Germanic conflict of the 1st century.

Kalkriese Varus
The conflict site Oberesch at Kalkriese with the geoprofile dug in 2018 and 2019 (in red) and previous excavations (until 2017). Outlined in grey are the V-shaped ditch (VD) in the northern area and the ‘wall’ and ditch structure (WD) in the southern part of the Oberesch. Credit: Varusschlacht Museum und Park Kaldriese

The study begins by examining the landscape changes of Kalkriese since the Pleistocene period. The geological base, composed of moraines from the Saale glacial era, has been modified by aeolian and colluvial deposits over thousands of years, particularly due to intensive agricultural activity since the Early Neolithic. The oldest strata indicate land sporadically used for agriculture during the Bronze Age and more intensively during the Iron Age. However, events related to the Roman Empire left more fragmented and dispersed traces.

A layer of fossil soil dating from the Late Iron Age to the Roman imperial period contained artifacts such as Germanic pottery and Roman military equipment, supporting the theory that the conflict occurred during this horizon. However, these objects seem to have been subsequently disturbed by medieval agricultural activities, further complicating the interpretation of historical events.

Between 2017 and 2019, archaeologists excavated a 170-meter geological profile at Oberesch. They used metal detectors, drone photogrammetry, and magnetometry analysis to identify potential areas of interest. Radiocarbon and OSL dating revealed that supposed ancient structures, such as a V-shaped ditch at the northern end of the site and a presumed wall in the south, were not from the Roman period. Instead, these elements appear to result from sedimentation processes and terrain modifications during the Early Middle Ages.

Kalkriese Arminius
Profile 14_3 with the position of the OSL ages. Credit: J.W. Härtling et al.

For example, the “wall” was not a collapsed Roman-era structure, as previously assumed. Instead, researchers found a layer of colluvial material dated to around 1000 CE, likely used to consolidate the terrain. Similarly, the V-shaped ditch, initially thought to be a Roman military trench, also originated in the Middle Ages, ruling out its association with the battle where Varus’s legions perished.

Although the study does not deny that the Kalkriese area was the site of a Roman-Germanic conflict, its findings suggest that some traditional narratives may be based on misinterpretations of archaeological evidence. Remains of weapons, coins, and military equipment found in layers associated with the ancient surface indicate military activities, but the absence of a clear Roman or Germanic defensive structure raises new questions about how the confrontation actually unfolded.

The predominant theory of a Germanic ambush using fortifications to trap Varus’s legions loses strength due to the lack of geological evidence. Likewise, the idea of a Roman defensive camp built on the site also lacks solid archaeological support.

Kalkriese legions
Photograph of the southern section of the geoprofile with profiles 14_5 and 14_4. The relevant layers and their radiocarbon ages are superimposed. Credit: J.W. Härtling et al.

The study highlights the importance of combining archaeological and geoarchaeological methods to reinterpret historical sites. The application of dating techniques and stratigraphic analysis has allowed researchers to separate events from the Roman period from terrain modification processes during the Middle Ages. This not only redefines our understanding of Kalkriese but also sets a precedent for future studies at other conflict sites.

Additionally, the findings emphasize how landscapes can be significantly shaped and reconfigured by human activity over the centuries, complicating the task of unraveling specific historical events. In the case of Kalkriese, what was once believed to be a Roman battlefield might, in part, be a palimpsest of medieval occupation and land use.

The authors of the study stress the need for further excavations and absolute dating in other parts of the site to confirm their findings and explore unexplored areas. They also suggest that a more detailed analysis of ditch fills and structures could provide additional clues about their origins and functions.

SOURCES

Joachim W. Härtling, Andreas Stele, et al., Germanic Rampart or Roman Encampment?—New Geoarchaeological Evidence at the Roman Conflict Site at Kalkriese (NW-Germany). Geoarchaeology, vol.40, issue 1, doi.org/10.1002/gea.22031

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