An international team of researchers has shed new light on the use of grinding stones in early Neolithic Scandinavia. These stones, discovered at a settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture on the island of Funen, Denmark, have undergone exhaustive analysis that reshapes our understanding of the dietary habits of the first farmers in Northern Europe.

The archaeological site at Frydenlund revealed 14 grinding stones alongside more than 5,000 charred grains of barley, emmer wheat, and durum wheat. While the immediate assumption might be that these grains were ground into flour for bread-making, a detailed analysis conducted by researchers from Denmark, Germany, and Spain suggests otherwise.

Using advanced techniques to analyze microscopic plant remains, such as phytoliths and starch grains trapped in the stones’ surface cavities, the researchers discovered that these tools were not used to grind cereals. Instead, evidence pointed to wild plants, although the specific species remain unidentified.

Neolithic Denmark no bread
The location of Denmark in Europe (left above), the location of Frydenlund in Denmark (left below), and the main structures at Frydenlund: Funnel Beaker structures A and B that functioned as houses during phase a and as burial monuments during phase b. 1 = palisade (phase b), 2 = facade (phase b), 3 = Bronze Age burial mound that explains partial disturbance of structure B. Credit: W. A. Out et al.

The results of the study, published in the scientific journal Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, open up new possibilities for the use of grinding stones. According to archaeobotanist Welmoed Out from the Moesgaard Museum, the stones lack the typical wear marks caused by grinding grains with pushing and friction movements. Instead, associated tools, such as stone pestles, suggest a different use—crushing or pounding ingredients, as one might do with a mortar.

Hypotheses suggest that the inhabitants of Frydenlund may have processed roots, berries, nuts, or even wild herbs instead of cereals. This finding aligns with previous research in Northern Europe, which suggests that early farmers consumed porridge made from cooked grains, supplemented with a diet rich in gathered produce and meat rather than baked bread.

The traditional view of the early Neolithic as an era dominated by bread production is challenged by these discoveries. While cereals were cultivated and possibly consumed in other forms, there is no conclusive evidence that they were ground into flour at this site. Instead, the findings support the idea of a more varied diet, less reliant on intensive grain processing.

Neolithic Denmark no bread
One of the 14 grindings tones that archeologists found while excavating a 5,500 years old settlement on the Danish island Funen. A new study reveals that the stones were not used to grind cereal grains. Credit: Niels H. Andersen / Moesgaard Museum

Moreover, the researchers highlight the absence of evidence for beer production in Denmark during this period. The earliest evidence of brewing in the region dates to the Bronze Age, suggesting that fermented beverages were not commonly consumed by these early farming communities.

The Funnel Beaker Culture, active between 4000 and 2800 BCE, represents a milestone in Scandinavian history, marking the transition to agriculture and animal husbandry. Its name derives from the distinctive shape of its ceramic vessels. The discovery at Frydenlund is significant not only for the volume of tools and grains recovered but also because it offers a unique glimpse into this culture’s subsistence practices.

The researchers caution that the conclusions are not definitive. This study focuses on a single settlement. While it supports similar findings elsewhere, we cannot rule out different results from future analyses at other sites, notes Niels H. Andersen, co-author of the study.

What factors led these farmers to prioritize the collection and processing of wild plants over cereal use? What roles did cultural traditions and technological constraints play in these decisions? The research underscores the importance of avoiding simplistic assumptions about ancient societies. While agriculture marked a revolution in human history, its impact was far more complex and diverse than traditionally imagined.

SOURCES

Aarhus University

Out, W.A., García-Granero, J.J., Andreasen, M.H. et al. Plant use at Funnel Beaker sites: combined macro- and microremains analysis at the Early Neolithic site of Frydenlund, Denmark (ca. 3600 BCE). Veget Hist Archaeobot (2024). doi.org/10.1007/s00334-024-01020-9

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