Recent research has unveiled the nature of the weaponry used by Francisco Vázquez de Coronado’s expedition (which crossed the present-day U.S. states of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas), referred to as Armas de la tierra (weapons of the earth), which had until now remained an enigma. This study, led by Deni J. Seymour, analyzes findings at key expedition sites, such as Chichilticale and San Gerónimo III, located in present-day southern Arizona.

The term Armas de la tierra appears in the expedition’s records and refers to a diverse arsenal that included both modified European weapons and tools adapted to the local context.

According to the study, these weapons were not limited to replicas of indigenous instruments but were items manufactured or adapted in North America using available materials. This armament reflects a combination of European and indigenous technologies, tailored to meet the needs of an expedition in a remote and hostile environment.

Expedition Coronado
Map showing the approximate locations of San Geronimo III/Suya and Chichil- ticale. Chichilticale is more than 50 miles north of the headwaters of the San Pedro. Credit: D.J. Seymour

Among the examples found are metal points of various shapes and sizes, used in arrows, atlatl-thrown darts, and spears. These points, made of iron and copper, represent a class of weaponry that blends European manufacturing methods with functional designs suited to the local context.

The research focused on two key sites: the Chichilticale camp (1539–1540) and the San Gerónimo III settlement (1541). In both locations, significant battle remnants were identified, including metal arrowheads, nails, copper bells, and other artifacts characteristic of the Coronado expedition period. The concentrations of these objects, along with their spatial distribution, helped identify specific areas of conflict.

At San Gerónimo III, for instance, two cannons were found at the center of the site, along with fragments of daggers, swords, musket balls, and parts of primitive firearms.

Coronado expedition
Classic arrowheads, both metal and stone, all from the San Geronimo III site. S-1251 is the specimen used to define this type, but S-283 and S-1653 seem to be variations on this style, other than possessing only a single side notch. Credit: D.J. Seymour

These findings point to a violent confrontation with the indigenous Sobaipuri O’odham community. Similarly, at Chichilticale, the projectile points distributed across the terrain formations indicate the existence of a previously unknown battlefield.

One of the study’s most surprising conclusions is the versatile and creative nature of the weapons used. The weapons of the earth include both arrowheads crafted from local materials and modifications of European weapons.

This hybrid approach was a result of supply shortages, as well as the need to adapt weapons to the combat conditions on the frontier.

Expedition Coronado
A comparison of Old Copper Culture points to Coronado expedition sheet and short- block points from Piedras Marcadas and Santiago Pueblo shows their morphological similarity despite size differences. Photographs courtesy of Matthew Schmader from Piedras Marcadas (PM), Clay Mathers from Santiago Pueblo (SP), and Old Copper Complex (OCC). Credit: D.J. Seymour

The research also revealed that the weapons used were not always Spanish-made. Some were crafted by the indigenous allies of the Spaniards, known as Indios Amigos, who played a key role in the expedition. These warriors employed traditional weapons like bows and spears, often adding metal tips made from repurposed materials.

The weapons of the earth symbolize a cultural and technological exchange at a crucial moment in the history of the American Southwest. Furthermore, these findings help revalue the role of indigenous peoples in colonial enterprises, showing how they adapted to and adopted foreign technologies.

Lastly, the study invites reflection on the complexity of conflicts during the conquest era. Beyond heroic narratives and military strategies, archaeological evidence reveals a landscape of improvisation, cooperation, and resistance, where unconventional weapons played a decisive role.

SOURCES

Deni J. Seymour (28 Nov 2024): Armas de la Tierra: Unconventional Weaponry of the Coronado Expedition, KIVA, DOI:10.1080/00231940.2024.2416290

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