In a study recently published in the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, researcher Brandon McDonald from Tufts University examines a fascinating period of transition in the history of ancient Egypt under Roman rule. Through a meticulous analysis of archaeological evidence, McDonald demonstrates how the once-bustling region of the Egyptian Eastern Desert experienced a dramatic decline in activity between the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD, much earlier than previously believed.

The article challenges the conventional view that the region maintained its strategic and economic importance for the Roman Empire until the mid-3rd century. Instead, McDonald presents compelling evidence that the gradual abandonment of this crucial area began decades earlier, coinciding with the end of the Antonine dynasty and the beginning of the Severan era.

The Eastern Desert, stretching from the Nile to the Red Sea, played a vital role in the economy of Roman Egypt. It housed important quarries of ornamental stone, gold mines, and other precious minerals, as well as seaports that served as gateways to lucrative trade with Arabia and India. The region was crisscrossed by a network of fortified roads that connected these centers of production and trade with the Nile Valley.

Ancient sites and roads in the Eastern Desert
Ancient sites and roads in the Eastern Desert. Credit: Brandon McDonald

McDonald conducts an exhaustive survey of the main archaeological sites in the area, from the quarries of Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites in the north to the ports of Myos Hormos and Berenike on the Red Sea coast. At each location, the pattern is similar: a boom in activity in the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd, followed by a marked decline towards the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.

In the quarries of Mons Porphyrites, famous for its valuable purple porphyry, ceramic and numismatic evidence suggests that most of the associated settlements were abandoned in the second half of the 2nd century. The fort that served as the administrative center of the complex shows signs of reduced activity starting from the second quarter of the 3rd century.

Further south, in the important port of Myos Hormos, archaeological findings indicate that the settlement was completely abandoned around the year 220 AD. Its rival, Berenike, managed to remain active for a longer period but also experienced a significant decrease in trade volume during the same period.

The quarries, structures, and villages associated with Porphyrites
The quarries, structures, and villages associated with Porphyrites. Credit: Harrell and Stormyr 2009

This pattern is repeated in numerous forts and stations along the routes that connected the quarries and ports with the Nile. Many of these posts, vital for the security and logistics of trade across the desert, show evidence of abandonment or very reduced activity in the early 3rd century.

McDonald argues that this widespread decline cannot be explained solely by local factors. Instead, he proposes that it was the result of a combination of geopolitical events and crises that affected the entire Roman Empire during this period. Among the factors that may have contributed to this phenomenon, the author highlights:

The Antonine Plague, a devastating pandemic that struck the empire between 165 and 180 AD, causing a significant decrease in population and disrupting trade networks.

The quarries and structures of Mons Claudianus
The quarries and structures of Mons Claudianus. Credit: Harrell and Stormyr 2009

The costly wars waged by Marcus Aurelius against the Parthians in Western Asia and the Marcomanni in Central Europe, which drained the empire’s resources and possibly reduced the demand for luxury goods from the East.

Changes in long-distance trade patterns, which may have made routes through the Eastern Desert less attractive or necessary.

According to McDonald, the decline of activity in the Eastern Desert could be an early indicator of the tensions and challenges that would culminate in the so-called “Crisis of the 3rd Century”.

Excavations at Berenike
Excavations at Berenike. Credit: M. Gwiazda / PCMA UW

It is important to note that the abandonment of the region was neither total nor permanent. The author points out that some sites, such as the port of Berenike, experienced a modest recovery in the late Roman period (4th-6th centuries AD). However, the region never regained the intensity of activity that had characterized its golden age in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.

The decline of the Eastern Desert was not an isolated phenomenon but reflected and possibly contributed to broader changes in the imperial economy. Far from being a sudden event in the mid-3rd century, McDonald’s work suggests that the symptoms of the crisis were already visible decades earlier in regions such as Egypt’s Eastern Desert.

Examination of archaeological evidence from the region over time reveals this juncture as a turning point. The authority and investment of the Roman state declines from this point onward, leading to the invasion of the eastern desert tribes and the final withdrawal of the Roman Empire from the area, McDonald concludes.

SOURCES

McDonald, B. (2024). The Downturn of Egypt’s Eastern Desert in the Middle Roman Imperial Period. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. doi.org/10.1177/03075133241273454

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