In Norse mythology, the end of the world, Ragnarok, begins with a three-year winter with no intervening summers: the Fimbulvetr.

Now, a new research study from the National Museum of Denmark, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science Reports, shows that the myth could have roots in a real climate catastrophe that occurred 1,500 years ago, which also affected Denmark and may have wiped out much of the population.

Many have speculated about this, but for the first time we can demonstrate that possibly the greatest climate catastrophe in human history affected Denmark catastrophically, says Morten Fischer Mortensen, lead researcher at the National Museum.

In 536 AD, the first in a series of violent volcanic eruptions covered the planet in a veil of ash and sulfurous gases that blocked the sun’s rays. This effect is well documented in written sources from both the Roman Empire and China, where they describe a sun that shone pale and cold like the moon, crops that wouldn’t ripen, and more than a year during which stars could not be seen in the sky.

Until now, it wasn’t clear whether the climate catastrophe affected living conditions in Denmark. However, by studying the rings of over 100 oak samples from the 6th century, researchers from the National Museum can now demonstrate for the first time a drastic impact on growth conditions.

Especially during three summers between the years 539 and 541, the trees showed no growth, as a result of another violent volcanic eruption.

Especially during three summers between 539 and 541, the trees showed no growth.
Especially during three summers between 539 and 541, the trees showed no growth. Credit: Jonas O. Jensen / Moesgaard Museum

When trees couldn’t grow, nothing could grow in the fields either. In a society where everyone depended on agriculture, this had catastrophic consequences. This is backed up by other studies we are working on. We see a sharp drop in grain production, areas abandoned by people, and forests expanding over the deserted fields, says Morten Fischer Mortensen, adding:

In Norway and Sweden, researchers believe that up to half of the population died, and it’s not unthinkable that the same happened in Denmark. I shudder when I see these narrow rings, knowing how much sorrow, death, and disaster they represent.

Climate models show a global drop in temperature by several degrees during this period. At Denmark’s latitude, there was probably a decrease of more than 3 degrees.

Archaeological findings also bear witness to some decisive years, as several large gold treasures, such as the gold horns, the Vindelev treasure, and the Broholm treasure, were buried during this period. In the following centuries, massive jewelry and gold from earlier eras hardly appear. This could indicate that all valuables were offered in desperation to the gods so the sun would return.

The study teaches us more about the past, but perhaps also about the future. How did people react to catastrophes like this? Did it lead to war or major social changes, and how did they adapt and survive? We hope to learn more about this, as it’s also relevant today, when the climate is changing and we may need to adapt. We cannot predict when Earth will again be hit by a violent volcanic eruption or natural disaster.

Rye bread
Rye bread. Credit: Rainer Zenz / Wikimedia Commons

What followed the climate catastrophe, and whether it heralded a sort of ragnarok for society, is uncertain, but another recent study from the National Museum shows that, at least, agriculture diversified crop varieties in the following years, ensuring greater food security.

For example, rye cultivation became more common in the centuries afterward, probably because it’s a hardy plant and less dependent on the sun than other grains. In this way, rye became a safeguard against hard times.

One could speculate that rye bread originated in this period, as rye has historically been used to make bread. It’s interesting to think that our love for rye bread could have been born from a climate crisis, says Morten Fischer Mortensen.

It’s unknown whether the description of the Fimbulvetr has its roots in the 6th-century climate catastrophe, but the coincidence is striking.

These types of myths can be pure fantasy, but they may also contain an echo of truth from the distant past. Many have speculated whether the Fimbulvetr refers to the 6th-century climate catastrophe, and now we can say there is a great coincidence with what we can scientifically demonstrate.

SOURCES

Nationalmuseet i København

Hanne Marie Ellegård Larsen, Claudia Baittinger, et al., The impact of the volcanic double event in AD 536 and AD 539/540 on tree-ring growth and felling activity in Danish oak trees. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 59, November 2024, 104689. doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104689

Mette Marie Hald, Amy Styring, et al., Farming during turbulent times: Agriculture, food crops, and manuring practices in Bronze Age to Viking Age Denmark. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 58, October 2024, 104736. doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104736

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