The Xiongnu were a group of nomadic tribes that became the dominant empire on the steppes during the 2nd century BC and whose evolution may have given rise to some of the groups that were later better known, such as the Mongols, the Turks, and even the Huns, with whom some historians identify them.

Thus, the Xiongnu Empire emerged on the Mongolian steppe 1,500 years before the Mongols and grew to become one of the most powerful political forces in Asia during the Iron Age, extending its reach and influence from Egypt to Rome and Imperial China. However, it was with Imperial China that they had the most contact, and it was their relentless attacks that eventually led to the construction of the Great Wall, precisely to defend against them.

As a counterbalance, in the year 413 AD during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, Emperor Helian Bobo, whose cruelty we have already covered in another article, ordered the construction of a large city as the capital: Tongwan (the city that governs over ten thousand). From there, he intended to unify the entire known world under his empire, using it as a bastion in his attacks on the territories shielded by the Great Wall of China.

The Xia kingdom at its peak, with the new capital Tongwan and its bordering states at its peak.
The Xia kingdom at its peak, with the new capital Tongwan and its bordering states at its peak. Credit: SY / Wikimedia Commons

The city was discovered in 1845 when a magistrate named He Bingxun identified the ruins, previously known as Bai Chengzi, in China’s Shaanxi province near the border with Inner Mongolia, as those of the ancient Tongwan.

The discovery was later confirmed in 1956 by workers from the Shaanxi cultural relics office, who found various artifacts such as copper seals, copper mirrors, Buddha figures, and decorative bricks. From then on, Tongwan became the subject of several explorations and excavations that revealed its remarkable structure and the impressive engineering effort that its construction represented.

Helian Bobo, who was the emperor of the Hu Xia kingdom and a descendant of the Xiongnu leaders who had established their empire on the steppes in the 3rd century BC, chose a strategic location on the banks of the Wuding River, on the southern edge of the Maowusu sands of the Ordos Desert, to build a city that symbolized Xiongnu dominance over the region. Tongwan was conceived as an impregnable fortress and an administrative and ceremonial center.

Ruins of Tongwancheng, the fabulous capital built by Bobo
Ruins of Tongwancheng, the fabulous capital built by Bobo. Credit: Cong / Wikimedia Commons

To ensure the impenetrability of Tongwan, Helian Bobo appointed General Chigan Ali as chief architect. He used a unique construction technique known as “compressed or steam-tamped earth”, hardening the city walls to such an extent that they were said to be able to sharpen knives and axes.

The construction of the city required the labor of approximately 100,000 people and extended over more than four years. The walls, distinctive for their white color due to the use of white clay and rice powder, were so thick and resistant that they were said to withstand even the fiercest attacks.

Tongwan was organized into three main sections: the outer city, the eastern city, and the western city, with a lake at its center. The outer city covered a vast area of 7.7 square kilometers and was surrounded by a rammed earth wall. The eastern and western cities, both rectangular in shape, were separated by an internal wall.

Panoramic view of the remains of Tongwancheng
Panoramic view of the remains of Tongwancheng. Credit: Caitriana Nicholson / Wikimedia Commons

The western city, where the king’s residence was located, had four main gates, each symbolizing Helian Bobo’s desire to unify the known world: the Gate of Inviting Wei, the Gate of Paying Tribute to Song, the Gate of Subjugating Liang, and the Gate of Pacifying Shuo (all neighboring kingdoms). The city’s defensive structure was complemented by a system of towers and battlements that offered additional protection.

In 426 AD, Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty launched a surprise attack on Tongwan, then governed by Helian Chang, Bobo’s son. Although the initial assault only succeeded in burning the city’s main temple, the surrounding areas were devastated, initiating a process of deforestation and drying that would affect the water supply from the Wuding River and the city’s central lake. This environmental destruction contributed to the subsequent desertification and gradual abandonment of the city. The Annals of Emperor Shizu record the assault as follows:

On the day of yisi the Emperor entered the city and captured Helian Chang’s younger brothers, their mothers, sisters, wives, concubines, and palace servants, totaling 10,000 people. They took countless invaluable objects from the government treasury, including precious stones, carriages, and banners, along with innumerable items… over 300,000 horses and tens of thousands of oxen and sheep. They distributed Helian Chang’s palace servants and livestock, gold and silver, textiles, and silk among their officers as rewards for their merits… On the day xinyou, they withdrew the troops, leaving behind Su, Prince of Changshan, and Heng Dai, chamberlain of the imperial insignia, to defend Tongwan.

Tongwancheng Ruins
Tongwancheng Ruins. Credit: Caitriana Nicholson / Wikimedia Commons

Over the centuries, Tongwan continued to play an important role in the region. It was besieged by Tibetan forces in 786, and in 994 Emperor Song Taizong ordered the destruction of the city (which had already been renamed Tongwancheng) and the relocation of its inhabitants due to the intensifying desertification. This marked the beginning of the city’s decline, which was gradually abandoned and eventually buried by desert sands.

The city fell into oblivion and ceased to be mentioned in Chinese records after the 15th century. It was not rediscovered until 1845, with its identity confirmed in 1956. At the beginning of the 21st century, Tongwancheng became the subject of systematic studies by Chinese archaeologists, who have restored key elements such as the Yong’an Platform, used for military inspections and official ceremonies.

Archaeologists found that the city’s walls still rise between 2 and 10 meters above the ground, and some defensive structures such as towers and compacted earth walls are preserved. The towers, known as mamian, were arranged at regular intervals along the walls and were also used as storehouses.

Tongwancheng Ruins
Tongwancheng Ruins. Credit: Caitriana Nicholson / Wikimedia Commons

The city had a high level of craftsmanship, with numerous building materials such as bricks and tiles, stone sculptures of birds and warriors, and various ceramic and bronze objects found during the excavations. It also had commercial significance, as a mural tomb discovered in 2011 contained vibrant and well-preserved images of Sogdians, an Iranian merchant community, highlighting the region’s cultural diversity.

Research continues, and to this day the city has not yet been fully excavated. What has been unearthed confirms the legends that the white city looked like a giant ship from a distance. The Book of Jin, an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin Dynasty from 266 to 420 AD, compiled by imperial court order, describes the city as follows:

The hill is beautiful, in front of it the plain is wide, and around it there is a lake of pure water. I have wandered to many places, but I have not seen a land whose beauty can compare to that of this place.

This article was first published on our Spanish Edition on June 27, 2024: La fabulosa “ciudad blanca” desde la que los Xiongnu atacaban la Gran Muralla china

SOURCES

Obrusánszky Borbála, Tongwancheng, the city of Southern Huns

Hujiang, Tongwancheng

Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt, Chinese Architecture in an Age of Turmoil, 200-600

Xinjiang Rong, The Silk Road and Cultural Exchanges between East and West

Xiao Yinong, Green Great Wall

Wikipedia, Tongwancheng

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